Michael Davis
The Boletus mushroom family is a large genus of mushrooms that are typically fleshy with caps, stalks, and a layer of narrow, tightly packed vertical tubes that create a sponge-like layer under the cap. While some mushrooms in this family are edible, others are toxic, and some are even believed to be hallucinogenic. The hypothesis that certain Boletus mushrooms contain hallucinogenic compounds has been treated seriously by some researchers and critiqued by others, with conflicting findings and ongoing controversy surrounding the topic. This introduction will explore the evidence for the hallucinogenic effects of Boletus mushrooms and discuss the challenges in identifying the specific species and compounds responsible for these effects.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Family | Boletaceae |
| Genus | Boletus |
| Species | edulis, badius, aereus, manicus, speciosus, nigerrimus, curtisii, carminipes, flavorubra, pallidorosea |
| Appearance | Fleshy mushrooms with caps, stalks, and a layer of narrow, tightly packed vertical tubes that create a sponge-like layer under the cap |
| Colors | Various |
| Stem | Thick or bulbous, except for some Suillus species |
| Ring | Absent, except for some Suillus species |
| Taste | Bitter Bolete (Tylopilus felleus) is extremely bitter |
| Toxicity | Some species are highly poisonous and have caused fatalities in humans, e.g., Satan's Bolete (Rubroboletus satanas) |
| Psychoactivity | Some species are reported to have psychoactive or hallucinogenic effects, e.g., B. manicus, B. speciosus, and B. nigerrimus |
| Culinary Use | Some species are considered edible and tasty, e.g., Cep, Porcini, Penny Bun, or King Bolete (B. edulis) |
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What You'll Learn
Hallucinogenic effects of Boletus mushrooms are unclear
The hallucinogenic effects of Boletus mushrooms are unclear. While some sources claim that certain Boletus species, such as Boletus manicus and Tylopilus nigerrimus, have hallucinogenic properties, others dispute these findings. The ambiguity surrounding the hallucinogenic effects of Boletus mushrooms may be attributed to several factors.
Firstly, the difficulty in identifying specific bolete species contributes to the uncertainty. Due to convergent evolution, many bolete mushrooms closely resemble one another, making it challenging to distinguish between them. This challenge is further exacerbated by the dynamic nature of scientific nomenclature within the mushroom genus, leading to potential confusion in foraging and identification practices.
Additionally, the active constituents responsible for any alleged hallucinogenic effects remain unidentified. While certain bolete mushrooms are known to contain compounds like β-carbolines and β-phenethylamine, the specific compounds responsible for hallucinogenic effects, if any, have not been conclusively determined. This lack of knowledge about the chemical constituents adds to the ambiguity surrounding the hallucinogenic potential of Boletus mushrooms.
Furthermore, the reported effects of consuming these mushrooms vary significantly. Some individuals have reported experiencing hallucinations, while others have not observed any noticeable psychoactive effects. The inconsistency in reported outcomes could be attributed to factors such as individual physiology, dosage, preparation methods, or even the presence of other compounds that may alter the effects.
The cultural and ritualistic context surrounding mushroom usage in certain regions, such as shamanic practices in Papua New Guinea, also plays a role in the ambiguity. It is possible that the reported "mushroom madness" or hallucinogenic effects could be a result of ritualistic acting out or social catharsis rather than a direct pharmacological effect of the mushrooms themselves. However, some researchers argue that this conclusion may be premature, and further investigation is warranted.
In conclusion, the hallucinogenic effects of Boletus mushrooms remain unclear due to challenges in species identification, unknown active constituents, inconsistent reported effects, and cultural complexities surrounding their usage. While some reports suggest hallucinogenic properties, the lack of conclusive evidence and conflicting findings highlight the need for further research to definitively ascertain the hallucinogenic potential of Boletus mushrooms.
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Psychoactive but not psychedelic
The Boletus mushroom family is a large genus of mushrooms, which are typically fleshy with caps, stalks, and a layer of narrow, tightly packed vertical tubes that create a sponge-like layer under the cap. While some mushrooms in this family are known to be hallucinogenic, the extent of their psychoactive properties is still debated.
The hypothesis that Boletus mushrooms contain highly potent hallucinogens has been both supported and refuted by different experts. French mycologist Roger Heim, for example, reported that consuming tiny amounts of the mushroom resulted in strange dreams, but clear and uncontroversial psychoactive effects were not observed. Other experts, like Giorgio Samorini, a contemporary psychedelic researcher, theorize that the conclusion that Boletus mushrooms are not hallucinogenic may have been premature.
The active constituents of the mushrooms have not been identified, and the findings are mixed. For example, while some reports suggest that Boletus manicus may be hallucinogenic, others argue that the quantities of the compounds responsible for the claimed hallucinogenic effects are too low to cause such reactions. Furthermore, the phenomenon of hallucinogenic bolete mushroom intoxication is well-known in China and has been reported in local and national media, with symptoms including dizziness, malaise, and visual and auditory hallucinations. However, it is unclear whether these effects are caused by one species or multiple species, as many different species closely resemble one another.
While the psychoactivity of certain Boletus mushrooms is still debated, it is important to distinguish between psychoactivity and psychedelia. Psychoactive substances are mind-altering or mind-enhancing, and many naturally occurring compounds, like caffeine, fall into this category. Psychedelic substances, on the other hand, refer more specifically to hallucinogens, like psilocybin-containing mushrooms, which are known to induce hallucinations. While some Boletus mushrooms may be psychoactive, they are not considered psychedelic, as their effects do not include hallucinations.
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Conflicting findings on 'mushroom madness'
Conflicting findings on mushroom madness
There are conflicting findings on whether bolete mushrooms are psychedelic or not. Some sources claim that certain bolete mushrooms, such as Boletus manicus and Tylopilus nigerrimus, have been used in shamanic practices in Papua New Guinea and have been reported to cause "madness" or hallucinations. However, other sources dispute these claims, arguing that the reported effects are not consistent and may be due to social catharsis or ritualistic acting out rather than the pharmacological effects of the mushrooms.
One of the challenges in determining the psychedelic properties of bolete mushrooms is the difficulty in identifying the exact species. Many different species closely resemble each other due to convergent evolution, and people in the region consume hundreds of different mushroom species, making it hard to pinpoint the specific hallucinogenic varieties. Additionally, the active constituents of the mushrooms that may be responsible for any psychoactive effects have not yet been identified.
French mycologist Roger Heim, who discovered Boletus manicus, reported strange dreams after consuming small amounts of the mushroom. However, he did not experience clear and uncontroversial psychoactive effects. Heim, along with Wasson and Reay, concluded in the 1960s that the claims of "mushroom madness" were unlikely to be caused by pharmacological effects. In contrast, psychedelic researcher Giorgio Samorini has theorized that this conclusion may have been premature, and the mushrooms may indeed possess psychoactive properties.
Cases of hallucinogenic bolete mushroom intoxication have been reported in China, with symptoms including visual and auditory hallucinations, dizziness, and malaise. For example, a Beijing hospital reported two cases of women experiencing hallucinations after consuming Boletus speciosus mushrooms. Similarly, a Hong Kong woman experienced hallucinations after consuming a bolete mushroom purchased in the Yunnan province. These reports suggest that some bolete mushrooms may have hallucinogenic effects.
However, it is important to note that the active compounds responsible for these effects have not been definitively identified, and cooking the mushrooms may neutralize their potential psychoactive properties. Additionally, the stigma against consuming blue-staining mushrooms in North America and Europe may have led to a lack of reports of hallucinogenic effects in these regions. Overall, while there are reports of "mushroom madness" associated with certain bolete mushrooms, the findings remain conflicting, and further research is needed to definitively establish their psychedelic properties.
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Shamanic use in Papua New Guinea
While it is unclear whether boletus mushrooms are psychedelic, they have been reported to have been used in shamanic practices in Papua New Guinea.
The use of hallucinogenic mushrooms in shamanic practices has been reported in various cultures worldwide, including the Kuma people and other ethnic groups in Papua New Guinea. The practice was first reported by a missionary in 1936, who claimed that the natives' consumption of certain bolete mushrooms led to "madness". However, the findings are conflicting, and this area remains controversial.
The Kuma people have been reported to consume various mushroom species, including Boletus manicus and Tylopilus nigerrimus. Psilocybe mushrooms are also present in these areas, but the locals consider them inedible and do not consume them.
Heim, a notable mycologist, singled out B. manicus due to its similar appearance to Rubroboletus satanas. He reported that the mushroom contained trace amounts of three unidentified indolic compounds. However, the quantities were too low to confirm hallucinogenic effects. Other researchers, like Jonathan Ott, have critiqued and discounted the hypothesis that these compounds are highly potent hallucinogens.
In the 1960s, Heim, along with Wasson and Reay, concluded that the claims of "mushroom madness" were likely ritualistic "acting out" rather than a pharmacological effect. This conclusion has been challenged by psychedelic researcher Giorgio Samorini, who suggests that the mushrooms may indeed be psychoactive.
Lilliputian hallucinations, a unique type of hallucination, have been associated with the consumption of hallucinogenic bolete mushrooms. These hallucinations involve seeing "xiao ren ren" or "little people". However, the exact species, active constituents, and mechanisms of action of these mushrooms are yet to be fully understood.
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Poisoning and adverse effects
While the psychedelic effects of some bolete mushrooms have been reported, the specific toxins and active constituents have not been identified. Poisoning by bolete mushrooms can result in adverse effects, including gastrointestinal issues and neurotoxic symptoms.
Gastrointestinal Issues
Gastrointestinal distress is a common symptom of mushroom poisoning, including that caused by certain bolete mushrooms. Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, which can occur within 15 minutes to 2.5 hours after ingestion. In some cases, there may be a delay of up to 5 hours before symptoms appear. These symptoms can lead to dehydration and electrolyte imbalances, requiring medical attention.
Neurotoxic Symptoms
Hallucinogenic bolete mushrooms can cause neurotoxic effects, including hallucinations and agitation. While typically non-fatal, severe outcomes have been reported, including myocardial infarction, severe rhabdomyolysis, acute renal failure, posterior encephalopathy, and protracted paranoid psychosis. Visual hallucinations, dizziness, and malaise have also been reported, lasting up to several days.
Other Effects
In addition to the gastrointestinal and neurotoxic symptoms, mushroom poisoning can also result in excessive salivation, sweating, tears, lactation in pregnant women, irregular pulse, decreased blood pressure, and difficulty breathing. Some individuals may also experience a rash and itching from handling certain mushrooms, similar to a reaction to poison oak or poison ivy.
Treatment
Treatment for bolete mushroom poisoning is supportive and aimed at rehydration and correcting serum electrolyte abnormalities. Activated charcoal can be administered orally to adsorb toxins, and atropine can be used as a specific antidote in some cases, although it must be administered by a physician. Prevention is key, and it is recommended to only consume non-hallucinogenic mushrooms that are commercially cultivated for human consumption.
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Frequently asked questions
No, not all Boletus mushrooms are psychedelic. However, certain species of Boletus mushrooms, such as Boletus manicus and Tylopilus nigerrimus, have been reported to have hallucinogenic effects.
Psychedelic Boletus mushrooms have been reported to cause hallucinations, both visual and auditory. Other symptoms include dizziness, malaise, and "mushroom madness", though the validity of this phenomenon is debated.
Psychedelic Boletus mushrooms have been reported to grow in Papua New Guinea, China, and Hong Kong. They are typically found in natural habitats such as forests and around trees.
