Michael Davis
Mushrooms have been consumed by humans since prehistory, but they can also be toxic. Of the many mushroom species, only about 100 are toxic, and ingestion can cause neurological and muscular symptoms. Poisoning from mushrooms can result in hallucinations, seizures, and even death. Some of the most toxic mushrooms include the death cap (Amanita phalloides), the destroying angels (A. virosa, A. bisporigera, and A. ocreata), and the fool's mushroom (A. verna). The Amanita muscaria (fly agaric) mushroom, for example, contains the neurotoxins muscimol and ibotenic acid. Other mushrooms, such as Psilocybe cubensis, contain the hallucinogenic neurotoxin psilocybin. While cooking may not alter the toxicity of some mushroom neurotoxins, it is important to note that consuming wild mushrooms can be dangerous and should be avoided unless one is an expert.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Number of toxic mushroom species | 100 out of thousands of species |
| Annual ingestions in the US | 6000 |
| Most poisonings in the US | Children under six |
| Symptoms | Gastrointestinal upset, liver failure, kidney failure, neurologic sequelae, hallucinations, seizures, euphoria, etc. |
| Types of toxins | Amatoxin, psilocybin, muscarine, coprine, allenic norleucine, gyromitrin, ibotenic acid, muscimol, orellanine, etc. |
| Toxic mushrooms | Death cap, destroying angels, fool's mushroom, deadly webcap, fool's webcap, Galerina, Lepiota, Conocybe, Amanita muscaria, etc. |
| Safe to eat | Mushrooms bought from the supermarket, greengrocer, or another reputable source |
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What You'll Learn
Hallucinogenic mushrooms
The effects of hallucinogenic mushrooms usually occur within 30 minutes to 2 hours of ingestion and can last for 4 to 12 hours. The duration and intensity of the effects depend on the dose and type of mushroom consumed. While the mushrooms are often eaten fresh or cooked, they can also be brewed into tea or made into a soup, which speeds up the onset of effects. Microdosing is another popular technique, where individuals consume less than 1 gram of dried mushrooms to experience milder effects without hallucinations.
Various species of hallucinogenic mushrooms exist, primarily within the Psilocybe genus. These include P. azurescens, P. semilanceata, and P. cyanescens, as well as Psilocybe cubensis, which is commonly ingested. Other genera, such as Panaeolus, Inocybe, Pluteus, Gymnopilus, and Pholiotina, also contain psilocybin. The Amanita muscaria (fly agaric) mushroom is another well-known hallucinogenic species that contains the fungal neurotoxins muscimol and ibotenic acid. It has been consumed in Asia for centuries and is often depicted in art and folklore.
While hallucinogenic mushrooms are sought after for their psychoactive effects, they can also lead to negative experiences known as "bad trips". These can include feelings of anxiety, fear, nausea, and muscle twitches, accompanied by increased heart rate and blood pressure. In some cases, individuals may experience flashbacks, which are visual distortions or hallucinations that can occur weeks, months, or even years after consuming the mushrooms. It is important to note that the effects of hallucinogenic mushrooms can be unpredictable and may be influenced by factors such as an individual's mood, environment, and the combination of other drugs.
Although rare, severe poisonings can occur due to the misidentification of toxic mushroom species. Poisonings can result in symptoms ranging from gastrointestinal upset to more severe manifestations, including liver failure, kidney failure, and neurological sequelae. Therefore, it is crucial to correctly identify mushroom species before consumption and to seek medical attention if any negative symptoms occur.
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Neurotoxins and myotoxins
Mushroom poisoning is caused by the ingestion of mushrooms that contain toxins. While there are thousands of mushroom species, only about 100 are toxic. Poisoning can occur due to misidentification of a poisonous species as edible, and symptoms can range from gastrointestinal discomfort to death.
Neurotoxins are toxins that affect the nervous system. Several mushroom species contain neurotoxins, including psilocybin, muscimol, and ibotenic acid. Psilocybin is a hallucinogenic neurotoxin found in mushrooms such as Pluteus salicinus and Psilocybe cubensis ("magic mushrooms"). These mushrooms have been used for recreational purposes and can cause euphoria, sensory distortion, and hallucinations. Ingesting psilocybin may also lead to adverse side effects like disturbing hallucinations, anxiety, and panic.
Muscimol and ibotenic acid are found in Amanita muscaria (fly agaric) mushrooms. Ibotenic acid is a psychoactive toxin that acts as an agonist of the NMDA receptor and glutamate receptors. Upon ingestion, ibotenic acid converts to muscimol, rendering it relatively non-toxic. However, death via respiratory depression is still possible. Amanita muscaria mushrooms have been consumed for centuries in Asia and are often associated with artistic representations of fairies, gnomes, and elves.
Myotoxins, on the other hand, affect the muscles. Mushroom poisoning can result in myotoxic presentations, such as rhabdomyolysis. While most neurological and myologic presentations of mushroom poisoning are rarely fatal, fatalities have occurred in rare cases involving more toxic mushrooms.
To prevent mushroom poisoning, it is crucial to properly identify mushrooms before consumption. Wild mushrooms should not be consumed unless identified as safe by a mushroom expert (mycologist). Additionally, children should be kept away from areas where wild mushrooms grow to prevent accidental ingestion.
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Symptoms of mushroom poisoning
Mushroom poisoning occurs when toxic mushrooms are ingested. Symptoms vary depending on the mushroom species, toxins, and amount ingested. There are up to 14 described syndromes associated with mushroom poisoning. While the majority of mushroom poisonings are not fatal, it is crucial to seek immediate medical attention if poisoning is suspected.
The most common symptom of mushroom poisoning is gastrointestinal distress, including nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. These symptoms typically occur within a few hours of ingestion and usually pass once the irritant has been expelled. However, severe cases may require hospitalization and can even lead to death.
In addition to gastrointestinal symptoms, mushroom poisoning can also cause excessive salivation, sweating, tears, lactation in pregnant women, visual disturbances, irregular pulse, decreased blood pressure, and difficulty breathing. Some mushrooms, such as those containing ibotenic acid and muscimol, can cause central nervous system effects, including confusion, visual distortions, a feeling of greater strength, delusions, convulsions, and drowsiness.
More severe cases of mushroom poisoning can lead to organ failure, including liver and kidney failure, and even death. The most toxic mushroom, Amanita phalloides, is responsible for 95% of mushroom poisoning deaths. Symptoms of Amanita phalloides poisoning include initial gastroenteritis, followed by liver and kidney failure, and death can occur within 48 hours. Other highly toxic mushrooms include Galerina, Lepiota, and Conocybe species.
It is important to note that the onset of symptoms may vary, with some mushrooms causing early symptoms within 2 hours, while others may take up to 5 hours or more. Therefore, it is crucial to seek medical attention immediately if mushroom poisoning is suspected, rather than waiting for symptoms to develop.
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Preventing mushroom poisoning
Mushroom poisoning is a serious condition that can have various neurological and muscular symptoms, and in rare cases, it can even lead to death. It occurs when someone ingests mushrooms containing toxic substances, often due to misidentifying poisonous species as edible ones. To prevent mushroom poisoning, it is crucial to follow these guidelines:
Avoid Wild Mushrooms
The best way to prevent mushroom poisoning is to refrain from consuming wild mushrooms. Many wild mushrooms are toxic, and it can be extremely challenging to distinguish between edible and poisonous varieties. Even experts sometimes struggle to identify mushrooms accurately, so it is best to leave this task to professionals. Wild mushrooms found on lawns or the ground in forests or yards are particularly risky due to potential pesticide exposure and the presence of other harmful substances.
Purchase Commercially Cultivated Mushrooms
To ensure safety, it is advisable to purchase mushrooms that have been commercially cultivated. These mushrooms are grown under controlled conditions and are less likely to be toxic. Buying mushrooms from reputable sources significantly reduces the risk of poisoning.
Educate Yourself and Others
It is essential to educate yourself and others, especially children, about the dangers of wild mushrooms. Learning about the poisonous nature of wild mushrooms can serve as a deterrent to careless foraging and consumption. People should be made aware that mushrooms with similar appearances can have vastly different toxicity profiles.
Exercise Caution When Foraging
If you choose to forage for mushrooms, it is crucial to proceed with caution. Familiarize yourself with the mushrooms you intend to collect, as well as any similar-looking toxic species. Always assume that wild mushrooms are poisonous unless you are absolutely certain of their edibility. Mushroom hunters follow the prudent practice of consuming only one type of mushroom at a time and saving a sample in a dry paper bag for later identification if needed.
Seek Expert Identification
Unless you are a trained expert, do not attempt to identify mushrooms solely through online research or books. Instead, seek assistance from specialists, such as mycologists, medical toxicologists, botanists, or regional poison centers. They have the necessary expertise to accurately identify mushrooms and can help prevent accidental poisonings.
Be Vigilant with Children and Pets
Mushrooms should be regularly removed from areas where children or pets play. Toddlers and young children are especially vulnerable to mushroom poisoning, as they may unknowingly ingest mushrooms they find while exploring. Keeping the phone number for the Poison Control Center (1-800-222-1222 in the United States) handy is always a good idea.
In summary, preventing mushroom poisoning revolves around knowledge, caution, and vigilance. By understanding the risks associated with wild mushrooms, exercising prudent foraging practices, and seeking expert identification when needed, you can significantly reduce the chances of experiencing mushroom poisoning.
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Mushroom toxins and cooking
Mushroom poisoning has been known for millennia and can range from benign symptoms of general gastrointestinal upset to devastating manifestations, including liver failure, kidney failure, and neurological issues. There are about 6000 ingestions annually in the United States, with over half of the cases involving children under six.
While few mushrooms are toxic, ingestion can cause various neurological and muscular symptoms, rarely resulting in fatality unless poisonous species are misidentified. The most common consequence of mushroom poisoning is gastrointestinal upset, with most "poisonous" mushrooms containing gastrointestinal irritants that cause vomiting and diarrhea. However, some recognized mushroom toxins have specific and sometimes deadly effects. For example, α-Amanitin, produced by the death cap mushroom (Amanita phalloides), is not denatured by heat and can cause serious illness or death. Other mushrooms with similar effects include some species of Galerina, Lepiota, and Conocybe.
Some mushroom species contain toxins that induce hallucinations, commonly known as 'magic mushrooms'. One well-known species is the golden top (Psilocybe subaeruginosa), which resembles certain varieties of the potentially deadly Galerina mushroom. Psilocybe cubensis, another type of "magic mushroom," contains the hallucinogenic neurotoxin psilocybin, which is structurally similar to the neurotransmitter serotonin. Pluteus salicinus, found in Lisbon, Portugal, also contains psilocybin and can be easily mistaken for non-psilocybin mushrooms in the wild.
The safety of consuming wild mushrooms depends on their preparation. While some inedible mushrooms can be rendered safe through cooking, drying, or soaking, many toxic varieties remain unsafe regardless of the cooking method. For example, morels should be thoroughly cooked before consumption, while the Devil's bolete is poisonous both raw and cooked. Bioluminescent mushrooms are generally inedible and mildly toxic. Additionally, cooking certain mushrooms may intensify their chemical smell, resembling disinfectant, iodine, or kerosene.
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