Emma Wilson
The liver is a complex organ that plays a crucial role in maintaining overall health. It is responsible for metabolizing drugs, alcohol, and various compounds, including toxins, and converting nutrients into essential substances. While mushrooms have been studied for their potential hepatoprotective effects, certain types of mushrooms, especially wild and psychedelic mushrooms, have been associated with instances of acute liver injury and potential risks to liver function. Understanding how mushrooms interact with the liver is essential for safe consumption and harnessing their potential therapeutic benefits.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Are mushrooms processed by the liver? | There is limited evidence linking psilocybin to direct liver damage, but it does interact with liver enzymes, potentially affecting how the liver processes other substances. Prolonged exposure could lead to adverse effects. |
| Which mushrooms are toxic to the liver? | Wild mushrooms, psychedelic mushrooms, and mushrooms containing muscimol or ibotenic acid can cause liver damage and hepatotoxicity with repeated use. |
| What are the symptoms of mushroom-induced liver damage? | Gastrointestinal symptoms such as watery diarrhea, vomiting, and/or abdominal pain. Other symptoms include elevated liver enzymes, indicating inflammation or damage. |
| What to do in case of suspected mushroom ingestion? | Seek medical attention, obtain a complete blood count (CBC), and perform baseline liver function studies to assess for potential hepatotoxicity. Identification of the ingested mushroom by a mycologist is desirable. |
| Protective effects of mushrooms on the liver | Mushroom extracts and mushroom-derived molecules have been reported to have hepatoprotective properties. Ganoderma lucidum is the most widely studied species in this regard. |
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What You'll Learn
Psychedelic mushrooms and liver damage
The liver is a complex organ responsible for carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism. It also detoxifies waste products of metabolism, such as ammonia, and is involved in red blood cell destruction and recycling.
Mushrooms have been found to possess hepatoprotective properties, meaning they can protect the liver against damage induced by exogenous compounds. However, some mushrooms can cause liver damage and even failure, which can be fatal. This is primarily due to the toxins present in certain mushrooms. For example, wild mushrooms have been known to cause acute liver injury, with symptoms such as watery diarrhoea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. In one study, 23 out of 93 patients with mushroom intoxication developed acute liver injury, with an overall in-hospital mortality rate of 43.5%.
Psychedelic mushrooms, also referred to as hallucinogenic mushrooms, can also cause liver damage. Laboratory studies have identified complications of psychedelic mushroom abuse, including hepatotoxicity with repeated use, acute renal failure, and rhabdomyolysis. However, the exact identification of the mushroom species ingested is often challenging, with definitive identification achieved in fewer than 3% of cases.
While mushroom-induced liver damage can be severe and potentially fatal, modern management with a multidisciplinary approach in a transplant center can improve patient outcomes and, in some cases, even avoid the need for liver transplantation. Additionally, certain mushroom extracts and mushroom-derived molecules have been found to exhibit hepatoprotective properties, highlighting the potential therapeutic benefits of mushrooms in liver health.
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Liver enzymes and mushroom toxins
The liver is a complex organ responsible for carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism. It detoxifies waste products of metabolism, such as ammonia, and is involved in red blood cell destruction and recycling. While most mushrooms are non-toxic, certain species contain toxins that can cause acute liver failure, with symptoms including weakness, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea.
Mushroom poisoning is a significant medical problem that can lead to severe hepatic necrosis and fulminant hepatic failure. It is a major health risk in rural areas, with over 5,000 mushroom species worldwide, and misidentification by amateur mushroom hunters occurs in more than 95% of toxicity cases. Amanita phalloides, also known as Death Cap, is the most common and fatal cause of mushroom poisoning. It contains amanitins, powerful hepatotoxins that inhibit RNA polymerase II in the liver, leading to impaired protein synthesis and subsequent hepatocellular necrosis. Other toxic mushrooms include Amanita ocreata, Lepiota brunneoincarnata, and Tricholoma equestre.
Mushroom toxins can cause hepatotoxicity, with some toxins specifically targeting the liver. Amatoxins, including alpha-amanitin and beta-amanitin, are responsible for 90% of fatal mushroom poisonings. These toxins cannot be destroyed by cooking or storage and can exist in the mushroom even after long periods of cold storage. Cyclopeptides, such as those found in cyclopeptide-containing mushrooms, are another type of toxin that can cause hepatotoxicity. Gyromitrin, found in some mushrooms, can cause hemolytic anemia.
Mushroom-derived molecules and extracts have been reported to possess hepatoprotective properties, offering protection against liver damage induced by exogenous compounds. Ganoderma lucidum, a widely studied mushroom species, exhibits hepatoprotective activities. Additionally, mycelial biomasses of medicinal fungi have shown pharmacologic properties comparable to those of mushrooms, providing potential bioactives for hepatoprotection. These hepatoprotective effects of mushrooms and their derivatives highlight their therapeutic potential in mitigating liver damage and supporting liver health.
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Mushroom intoxication and acute liver injury
Although most mushroom ingestions are benign, certain species can cause severe liver damage, culminating in acute liver failure. Amatoxins, for instance, are toxins found in some mushrooms that have a serious effect on the liver and account for 90% of fatal mushroom poisonings. Amatoxins inhibit the hepatic formation of mRNA by binding to RNA polymerase II, resulting in significant hepatocyte damage. The severity of mushroom poisoning may depend on the geographic location where the mushroom is grown, growth conditions, the amount of toxin delivered, and the genetic characteristics of the mushroom.
Mushroom poisoning, or mycetism, is a pressing health concern worldwide, with over 5,000 species of mushrooms present. It is a major health risk in rural areas, and the majority of ingested mushrooms are either non-toxic or only cause mild to moderate gastrointestinal irritation. However, in more than 95% of mushroom toxicity cases, poisoning occurs due to misidentification of the mushroom by an amateur mushroom hunter.
The diagnosis of mushroom poisoning is primarily clinical, but confirmatory tests can be done by measuring urinary amatoxin levels and identifying the mushroom through laboratory tests, although these tests may not be available in all health facilities. A complete blood count (CBC) and baseline liver function studies are also indicated when mushroom poisoning is suspected, as some mushroom toxins can cause hepatotoxicity and hemolytic anemia.
Currently, liver transplantation is the only lifesaving treatment for severe cases of mushroom-induced acute liver failure. While several substances have been used in the past to treat mushroom poisoning, such as steroids and cimetidine, they have been found to be ineffective. The most commonly used antidote, benzylpenicillin, also shows poor clinical efficacy. However, silibinin or acetylcysteine have been found to be more effective in mushroom poisoning therapy in humans.
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Mushroom hepatoprotective properties
Mushrooms are macrofungi with distinctive basidiomata or ascomata. The characteristics of their growth and development in nature result in the accumulation of a variety of secondary metabolites, including phenolic compounds, terpenes, steroids, polysaccharides, β-glucans, and proteins, several of which have biological activities.
Mushrooms have been studied for their hepatoprotective properties, with Ganoderma lucidum being the most widely studied species. G. lucidum is a medicinal mushroom from which approximately 400 chemical substances have been isolated. These substances include polysaccharides, triterpenoids, nucleosides, ergosterols, fatty acids, proteins/peptides, and trace elements. The polysaccharide and triterpenoid components in G. lucidum are believed to be responsible for its protective effects against toxin-induced liver injury.
Other mushrooms that have been studied for their hepatoprotective properties include Volvariella volvacea, Lentinula edodes, Flammulina velutipes, Auricularia auricular, Tremella fuciformis, Grifola frondosa, and Tricholoma lobayense. These mushrooms were screened for their hepatoprotective activities using a paracetamol-induced liver injury model in rats.
Mushroom extracts and mushroom-derived molecules have been shown to possess hepatoprotective properties. For example, pretreatment with an ethanolic extract of A. cinnamomea, a mushroom with hepatoprotective properties, prevented ethanol-induced hepatic swelling and degeneration of hepatocytes in a dose-dependent manner. The extract enhanced the activation of antioxidant genes and inhibited the production of inflammatory markers.
In summary, mushrooms possess a variety of secondary metabolites with biological activities, including hepatoprotective properties. Ganoderma lucidum is the most widely studied species for its hepatoprotective effects, while other mushrooms have also shown promising results in protecting against liver damage induced by exogenous compounds. Mushroom extracts and molecules derived from them have been demonstrated to inhibit ethanol-induced liver injury and protect against toxin-induced liver damage.
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Hallucinogenic mushrooms and liver toxicity
Hallucinogenic mushrooms have been used in religious and divinatory contexts for at least 3000 years. However, it was only in the 1950s that the specific species of fungi involved were identified, along with the chemical nature of the active substances. While generally safe, there have been cases of liver toxicity and even death from consuming hallucinogenic mushrooms.
Several species of mushrooms contain hepatotoxins called amatoxins, including Amanita, Galerina, and Lepiota. These toxins can lead to severe liver injury and, in some cases, even death. For example, a patient in Utah ingested psychedelic mushrooms and subsequently died from fulminant liver failure, acidosis, and hypotension. This was attributed to amatoxin-induced liver failure.
Mushrooms that contain cyclopeptides can also cause hepatotoxicity, and some species, such as Tricholoma equestre, have been linked to muscle toxicity or rhabdomyolysis. In addition, certain mushrooms like A. smithiana and orelline are nephrotoxic and can affect kidney function.
However, it is important to note that not all mushrooms are harmful. In fact, mushrooms have been studied for their potential hepatoprotective effects. Some species, like Ganoderma lucidum, have been found to possess biological properties that can protect the liver from damage induced by exogenous compounds. Mushroom extracts and mushroom-derived molecules have shown promising results in studies, exhibiting properties such as antioxidant, antitumor, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities.
When it comes to identifying the specific type of hallucinogenic mushroom ingested, it can be quite challenging. Definitive identification is achieved in fewer than 3% of cases, and often, multiple types of mushrooms can be found in the same location, adding to the complexity. Laboratory studies and chromatographic techniques can be employed to detect toxins and identify specific mushrooms, but these methods are usually reserved for research or forensic investigations rather than clinical practice.
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Frequently asked questions
Yes, mushrooms are processed by the liver. The liver is responsible for metabolizing and detoxifying various compounds, including psilocybin and psilocin, which are found in psychedelic mushrooms.
No, not all mushrooms affect the liver. However, it is important to identify the specific type of mushroom as some varieties, such as wild mushrooms, have been known to cause acute liver injury and even liver failure in rare cases.
Psychedelic mushrooms may pose potential risks for individuals with pre-existing liver conditions. The liver metabolizes psilocybin, and studies suggest that psychedelic mushrooms could lead to elevated liver enzyme levels, indicating possible strain or damage to the liver.
Yes, it is generally recommended to avoid consuming alcohol along with mushrooms as this combination can be dangerous. Alcohol is metabolized by the liver, and the concurrent consumption of mushrooms may amplify the risks associated with compromised liver function.
Signs of potential liver damage from mushroom ingestion may include gastrointestinal symptoms such as watery diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. In cases of suspected mushroom intoxication, baseline liver function studies and complete blood counts are often recommended to assess for potential hepatotoxicity and other complications.
