Laura Smith
Mushrooms, like plants, have a chemical defense mechanism that involves the production of toxins that impair the growth, development, or viability of antagonists. These defense mechanisms are activated when mushrooms are injured or grazed by larvae, insect bites, or other small creatures that feed on mushrooms. Some mushrooms produce long-chain unsaturated carboxylic acids as their chemical defense against insect larvae. Genetic analysis suggests that psilocybin, a psychedelic chemical, serves a protective function for fungi by altering the way potential attackers think, thereby lowering the chances of the fungi getting eaten. Additionally, mushrooms have been used for centuries to support human health, with their mycelium and fruit bodies shown to support a balanced immune response.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Defense mechanism | Production of toxins, peptides, and proteins |
| Toxins | Long-chain unsaturated carboxylic acids, polyene compounds, β-lactam antibiotic penicillin, antifungal lipopeptide pneumocandin B0, cytotoxic octapeptide α-amanitin |
| Fungi defense | Chemical defense, innate immune system, epigenetic histone modifications |
| Mushroom defense | Hallucinogenic chemicals, psilocybin |
| Mushroom supplements | Host Defense®, Fungi Perfecti® |
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What You'll Learn
- Hallucinogenic chemicals to stop insects eating them
- Production of toxins impairing growth, development, or viability of antagonists
- Enzymes that generate a large diversity of natural products
- Induction of chemical defense in fungi preserved to protect mycelium from damage by predation
- Use of mushroom mycelium in supplements to support human health
Hallucinogenic chemicals to stop insects eating them
Mushrooms and fungi have evolved a range of chemical defences to protect themselves against insect larvae and other predators. One such defence mechanism involves the production of long-chain unsaturated carboxylic acids, which act as a chemical defence against insect larvae. This defence is made possible by a single enzyme, which catalyses the biosynthesis of polyenes, a type of compound that inhibits the pupation of larvae.
Some mushrooms, known as "magic mushrooms", have evolved hallucinogenic chemicals that may serve as a defence against insects. The hallucinogenic substance in magic mushrooms is called psilocybin, and it is responsible for the psychedelic effects experienced by humans. According to a study led by Professor Jason Slot, a fungus specialist at The Ohio State University, the presence of psilocybin in magic mushrooms may have evolved as a protection against insect attack.
Professor Slot and his team compared the genomes of hallucinogenic and non-hallucinogenic fungi and identified the genes responsible for producing psilocybin. They speculated that psilocybin may alter the neurochemistry of insects, manipulating their brain chemistry to repel them and prevent the mushrooms from being eaten. While the specific effects of psilocybin on insect brains are not fully understood, one of the transmitters it interacts with in human brains is also found in flies and is involved in appetite control.
Furthermore, magic mushrooms often inhabit areas rich in fungi-eating insects, so the presence of psilocybin may be a strategy to protect the fungi or repel insects from competing for a shared food source. While there is limited evidence of psilocybin's direct impact on insects, other fungi use similar substances to influence insect behaviour, such as the zombie ant fungus. The defence mechanisms of mushrooms and fungi are a subject of ongoing research, and further studies will enhance our understanding of their chemical defences against insects and other predators.
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Production of toxins impairing growth, development, or viability of antagonists
Mushrooms and fungi have evolved a variety of strategies to protect themselves from microbial competitors and animal predators. Their primary defence strategy is chemical, which involves producing toxins that impair the growth, development, or viability of antagonists.
For example, the false turkey-tail mushroom produces polyene compounds when injured by insect larvae. These polyene compounds inhibit pupation in the larvae, thereby preventing their development into adult insects that could cause further harm to the mushroom. Similarly, some mushrooms produce long-chain unsaturated carboxylic acids as a chemical defence against insect larvae. This defence mechanism relies on the activity of a single enzyme, which catalyses the formation of these carboxylic acids.
The chemical defence mechanisms of mushrooms and fungi are highly regulated, as they are not essential for the organism's viability and their production requires significant resources. This regulation can be autonomous, independent of the presence of antagonists, or antagonist-dependent, activated only in response to a threat. For instance, the induction of chemical defence in fungi can be preserved for a period after an initial threat, protecting the organism from further damage.
The specific chemical defence effectors produced by mushrooms and fungi include secondary metabolites, peptides (ribosomally or non-ribosomally synthesized), and proteins. These effectors act by binding to specific target molecules in antagonists, such as bacteria and fungivorous nematodes. While the exact receptors and signalling pathways involved in fungal defence responses are not fully understood, they play a crucial role in protecting mushrooms and fungi from potential harm.
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Enzymes that generate a large diversity of natural products
Mushrooms and fungi have developed a wide range of chemical weapons to defend themselves. These chemical defenses are produced by enzymes, which are proteins that break down and convert complex compounds into simple products. For example, when the mycelium of a false turkey-tail mushroom is injured by a larva, it produces polyene compounds that inhibit pupation. The biosynthesis of these polyenes relies on just one enzyme, which catalyses the shift of multiple double bonds. This enzyme, polyketide synthase (PKS), is part of a distinct phylogenetic clade of fungal PKS enzymes.
Polyketide synthase enzymes generate a large diversity of natural products in plants and fungi. They are responsible for the production of secondary metabolites, including polyketides, non-ribosomal peptides, terpenes, and hybrids of these compounds. These secondary metabolites have been used as antibiotics (e.g. penicillin), cholesterol-lowering agents (e.g. lovastatin), and immune suppressants (e.g. cyclosporine). Fungi are well-known for their production of antimicrobial agents and enzymes, and they have evolved the ability to synthesize novel metabolites and enzymes that could be used for novel antimicrobial applications.
Fungal enzymes are also used in a variety of industries, including agriculture, medicine, and food production. For example, mushrooms can be grown on agricultural waste products, such as straw, sawdust, and peanut hulls, and can produce cellulase enzymes that break down this waste into valuable industrial products like bioethanol. The use of enzymes in industrial processes is often preferable to chemical processes as they can carry out several important reaction types with greater efficiency and under milder conditions.
Additionally, fermentation is a common method used to preserve and transform raw mushrooms into value-added products, utilizing microorganisms and enzymes. Fermented mushrooms are widely consumed due to their nutritional, sensory, and health-promoting properties, and they are used as food and food flavouring.
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Induction of chemical defense in fungi preserved to protect mycelium from damage by predation
Mushrooms and fungi have developed a wide range of chemical weapons to defend themselves against microbial competitors and animal predators. The chemical defense of filamentous fungi, for example, protects them from bacteria and fungivorous nematodes.
The main defense strategy of fungi is to produce toxins that impair the growth, development, or viability of antagonists. These defense effectors include secondary metabolites, peptides (ribosomally or nonribosomally synthesized), and proteins. Some mushrooms produce long-chain unsaturated carboxylic acids as their chemical defense against insect larvae. The biosynthesis of these polyenes relies on only one enzyme, as discovered by German scientists. In the journal Angewandte Chemie, they reported the unprecedented multiple double-bond-shifting activity by the enzyme, which is representative of a yet uncharacterized phylogenetic clade of polyketide synthases.
Hoffmeister and his colleagues argue that it was the first observation of injury-induced PKS gene expression and the unprecedented shift of multiple double bonds, catalyzed by a single PKS. They identified this enzyme as part of a distinct, yet unexplored phylogenetic clade among the fungal PKS enzymes. To prove this classification, they reconstituted the BY1 PKS gene into the model fungus Aspergillus niger, which then produced both of the BY1 polyene carboxylic acids. The authors propose that this defense strategy to build the unusual polyene is a widespread mechanism of mushrooms.
The induction of chemical defense in fungi is preserved for some time to protect the mycelium from further damage by predation. For example, grazing by D. melanogaster larvae and the soil arthropod F. candida induces resistance of the mycelium toward grazing by these predators even after a period of 6 hours without grazing.
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Use of mushroom mycelium in supplements to support human health
Mushrooms are a good source of ergothioneine, an amino acid and antioxidant that prevents or slows cellular damage. They are also low in sodium, which helps maintain low blood pressure. Research has shown that eating just 18 grams of mushrooms a day may lower the risk of cancer by up to 45%.
Mushrooms have been used for centuries to support human health. The mycelium, or the "plant" portion of the mushroom, is the longest-living part of the organism and is metabolically active for most of the mushroom's life cycle. It has been shown to support an engaged and modulated immune response, providing benefits to human health.
Mushroom mycelium-based supplements have been found to offer significant immunological support. They contain beta-glucans, polysaccharides, and novel compounds that are responsible for immune activation and modulation. These supplements can help support cognition and memory, energy and stamina, sleep and cardiovascular health, liver health, and the microbiome.
The potential of medicinal mushrooms is vast. Chaga, Reishi, Turkey Tail, Maitake, and Shiitake have all been found to bolster the immune system, promote longevity, and support overall health. Cordyceps boosts energy and virility, while Lion's Mane has the potential to relieve cognitive impairment, Alzheimer's, and dementia, and assist in nervous system trauma recovery. Medicinal mushrooms can also increase protection against viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic infections.
However, it is important to note that not all mushroom supplements are created equal, and consumers should be aware of the differences between mycelium-based and fruiting body-based products. While fruit bodies have a long history of human use, humans have only been able to grow the mycelium from an isolated species for about 100 years.
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Frequently asked questions
Yes, mushrooms have developed a vast arsenal of chemical weapons to defend themselves.
Mushrooms produce toxins that impair the growth, development, or viability of their antagonists. These chemical defense mechanisms are preserved for some time to protect the mushrooms from further damage by predation.
Some mushrooms produce long-chain unsaturated carboxylic acids as a defense against insect larvae. Another example is the β-lactam antibiotic penicillin produced by some Penicillium species.
Magic mushrooms have evolved hallucinogenic chemicals, such as psilocybin, to alter the way potential attackers think and reduce the chances of being eaten by insects.
Mushroom mycelium and fruit bodies have been shown to support a modulated immune response in humans. Host Defense® mushroom mycelium-based supplements are known to offer a range of health-supporting compounds.
