Emily Johnson
Mushrooms are a popular delicacy in many parts of the world, including Malaysia and Southeast Asia. However, only 200-300 of the 5000 known mushroom species are safe for consumption. Poisonous mushrooms can cause severe symptoms, including blurred vision, diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, and even circulatory collapse and death. This is because certain mushrooms contain a toxin called muscarine, which activates the peripheral parasympathetic nervous system. Mushrooms in the genera Entoloma, Mycena, Inocybe, Omphalotus, and Amanita contain varying levels of muscarine, which can be dangerous if ingested. While most Amanita muscaria mushrooms do not contain enough muscarine to cause harm, it is still possible to get sick from consuming them. Therefore, it is essential to be cautious when consuming wild or unfamiliar mushrooms to avoid potential poisoning.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Mushrooms containing muscarine | Genera Entoloma, Mycena, Omphalotus, Boletus, Hygrocybe, Lactarius, Russula, Amanita (muscaria, gemmata, pantherina, parcivolvata), Inocybe, Coprinus |
| Effects of muscarine | Mimics acetylcholine, more potent, slower but longer-lasting effects, no therapeutic use, causes profound activation of the peripheral parasympathetic nervous system, may lead to circulatory collapse and death |
| Symptoms of muscarine poisoning | Sweating, facial flushing, salivation, lacrimation, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, urination, miosis, blurred vision, hypotension, dizziness, wheezing, bradycardia, cardiac arrest |
| Treatment | No specific antidote, atropine, hemodynamic monitoring, aggressive fluid management, symptomatic supportive care |
| Prevention | Accurate diagnosis of poisoning based on recognition of common muscarinic manifestations, not species |
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What You'll Learn
Mushrooms containing muscarine
Mushrooms are a type of fungus that can be found in yards, parks, and wooded areas. While some mushrooms are edible, others are poisonous and can cause serious health issues, and even death. One such toxin found in mushrooms is muscarine, a parasympathomimetic substance that was first isolated from the Amanita muscaria mushroom in 1869 by German chemists Oswald Schmiedeberg and Richard Koppe.
Mushrooms in the genera Entoloma and Mycena contain levels of muscarine that can be dangerous if ingested. Other mushrooms, such as those in the genera Boletus, Hygrocybe, Lactarius, and Russula, contain harmless trace amounts of muscarine. A. muscaria, also known as "fly agaric", contains trace amounts of muscarine, with other toxins like muscimol and ibotenic acid being more significant contributors to its toxicity.
Mushrooms that contain higher levels of muscarine include species from the genera Clitocybe and Inocybe. Clitocybe dealbata, also known as the "sweating mushroom", may be confused with edible mushrooms such as the fairy ring champignon or sweetbread mushroom. Omphalotus olearius, or the Jack O'Lantern mushroom, is another muscarine-containing species that resembles the edible chanterelle mushroom. Inocybe species, including Inocybe geophylla and Inocybe lacera, are also known to contain muscarine.
Symptoms of muscarine poisoning typically occur within an hour of ingestion and can include sweating, facial flushing, salivation, lacrimation, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, urination, miosis, bradycardia, hypotension, and dizziness. In more severe cases, muscarine can cause tremors, convulsions, hypothermia, circulatory collapse, and even death. There is currently no specific antidote for muscarine poisoning, but mild cases can be managed with adequate hydration, while more severe cases may require atropine and aggressive fluid management.
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Symptoms of muscarine poisoning
Mushrooms in the genera Entoloma and Mycena contain levels of muscarine that can be dangerous if ingested. It is also found in harmless trace amounts in the genera Boletus, Hygrocybe, Lactarius, and Russula.
Muscarine mimics the function of the natural neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the muscarinic part of the cholinergic nervous system. It causes profound activation of the peripheral parasympathetic nervous system, which may result in circulatory collapse and death. It is a quaternary ammonium salt that does not pass the blood-brain barrier, so there is no central nervous system toxicity.
- Miosis
- Blurred vision
- Increased salivation
- Excessive sweating
- Lacrimation
- Bronchial secretions
- Bronchoconstriction
- Bradycardia
- Abdominal cramping
- Increased gastric acid secretion
- Diarrhea
- Polyuria
If muscarine reaches the brain, it can cause tremors, convulsions, and hypothermia. The symptoms of intoxication with mushrooms rich in muscarine, especially Inocybe, are:
- Headache
- Nausea
- Vomiting
- Constriction of the pharynx
- Salivation
- Lacrimation
- Diffuse perspiration
- Miosis
- Disturbed accommodation
- Reduced vision
There is no specific antidote for muscarine poisoning. However, patients with severe symptoms may require atropine, hemodynamic monitoring, and aggressive fluid management for the reversal of symptoms.
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Treatment for muscarine poisoning
Mushrooms in the genera Entoloma and Mycena contain dangerous levels of muscarine. Boletus, Hygrocybe, Lactarius, Russula, and Amanita muscaria mushrooms contain trace amounts of muscarine. Inocybe and Clitocybe mushrooms also contain muscarine.
Muscarine is a quaternary amine that does not pass the blood-brain barrier, so there is no central nervous system toxicity. However, it causes profound activation of the peripheral parasympathetic nervous system, which may lead to circulatory collapse and death. Muscarine mimics acetylcholine in the muscarinic part of the cholinergic nervous system, and it is more potent and longer-lasting.
If you suspect muscarine poisoning, contact Poison Control immediately. Do not wait for symptoms to develop. The treatment for muscarine poisoning is mainly supportive, consisting primarily of the administration of activated charcoal. Activated charcoal is an effective, inert, and non-toxic adsorbent that irreversibly binds intraluminal toxins and interferes with their absorption. Intravenous fluids may also be administered.
Atropine is the treatment of choice to control secretions. There are no other specific antidotes available for muscarinic mushroom toxicity. Mild muscarinic toxicities do not require any specific treatment, and adequate hydration is enough in its management.
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Amanita muscaria mushrooms
Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly amanita, is a large, white-gilled, white-spotted mushroom featuring a bright red cap covered with distinctive white warts. It is one of the most recognizable fungi in the world and is native to the temperate and boreal forests of the Northern Hemisphere. It is also now naturalized in the Southern Hemisphere, forming symbiotic relationships with various trees.
The name 'fly agaric' comes from its traditional use as an insecticide, specifically to kill flies. Albertus Magnus first recorded this use in his work 'De vegetabilibus' some time before 1256, commenting: "vocatur fungus muscarum, eo quod in lacte pulverizatus interficit muscas" ("it is called the fly mushroom because it is powdered in milk to kill flies"). The mushroom contains the compound 1,3-diolein, which attracts insects. It has been hypothesised that flies seek out the fly agaric for its intoxicating properties.
Amanita muscaria is a psychoactive species that contains muscimol, ibotenic acid, and muscarine as its main active compounds. It is toxic when consumed raw and is related to several deadly varieties, including the 'Death Cap' (Amanita phalloides). Poisoning can occur, especially in children and those seeking its hallucinogenic effects. However, fatal poisonings are extremely rare. The FDA has taken action against the use of Amanita muscaria in edibles, stating that the mushroom and its compounds are not authorized for use in food and do not meet safety standards.
Amanita muscaria gets its name from the trace amounts of muscarine it contains. Muscarine is a natural alkaloid found in a number of wild mushrooms. It was first isolated from Amanita muscaria by German chemists Oswald Schmiedeberg and Richard Koppe in 1869. It is of interest due to its toxic properties, which made it one of the first systematically studied cholinomimetic substances. It is a parasympathomimetic substance that causes profound activation of the peripheral parasympathetic nervous system, which may result in circulatory collapse and death. It does not cross the blood-brain barrier and does not directly cause CNS effects.
Mushrooms containing muscarine are commonly found in yards, parks, and wooded areas throughout the United States, Europe, and Asia. Poisoning from the ingestion of muscarine-containing mushrooms can result in symptoms such as sweating, facial flushing, salivation, lacrimation, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, urination, miosis, bradycardia, hypotension, dizziness, tremor, convulsions, and hypothermia.
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Legality of muscarine mushrooms
The legality of muscarine mushrooms varies by country and region. While some countries have taken a permissive approach to the possession, cultivation, and consumption of these fungi, others have implemented strict regulations or outright bans.
In the United States, for example, Amanita muscaria compounds like muscarine and muscimol are notably absent from the DEA's controlled substances list. This means that Amanita muscaria mushrooms and their derivatives are federally unregulated and generally legal to purchase in most states. This has contributed to the increasing popularity of these mushrooms in regions where other psychedelics are prohibited.
In countries like Ukraine, Australia, and Sweden, similar approaches have been adopted, with the possession, sale, cultivation, and consumption of Amanita muscaria being legal.
However, it is important to recognize that the legality of these mushrooms is not universal. Countries like Romania, the Netherlands, and Thailand have taken a different stance, classifying Amanita muscaria as prohibited substances.
The legal status of muscarine mushrooms is shaped by various factors, including the potential risks associated with their consumption. While muscarine is present in these mushrooms, its content is typically low, and other compounds like ibotenic acid and muscimol are considered the primary psychoactive agents. Nonetheless, muscarine can have significant physiological effects, particularly on the peripheral parasympathetic nervous system, leading to symptoms such as decreased cardiac contractions and lower blood pressure, and, in severe cases, circulatory collapse and death.
The varying legal status of muscarine mushrooms highlights the ongoing debate surrounding the risks and benefits of these fungi. While some countries permit their use, others remain cautious, underscoring the importance of understanding the potential dangers and ensuring responsible handling and consumption.
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Frequently asked questions
Muscarine is a natural alkaloid found in some mushrooms, such as Amanita muscaria. It affects heart rate and gland secretion and can cause peripheral nervous system activation.
Yes, muscarine-containing mushrooms are considered poisonous and can cause mushroom toxicity or poisoning, leading to symptoms such as sweating, facial flushing, salivation, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, and blurred vision. However, some mushrooms, like Amanita muscaria, only contain trace amounts of muscarine, making extreme toxicity and fatalities unlikely.
Mushroom poisoning requires serious medical intervention. There is no specific antidote for muscarine toxicity, but atropine and symptomatic supportive care can help reverse symptoms. Mild cases may only require adequate hydration.
Only a small fraction of the thousands of known mushroom species are safe for consumption. It is crucial to properly identify mushrooms before consuming them to avoid accidental poisoning. Do not forage or consume wild mushrooms unless you are an expert in mushroom identification.
