Emma Wilson
Mushroom clouds are clouds of smoke and debris that form after a nuclear explosion. The height of the mushroom cloud depends on the heat energy of the weapon and the atmospheric conditions. The fireball from an atomic bomb explosion rises rapidly, creating a vacuum that is filled by the surrounding air, which also expands and rises. The cloud may reach the tropopause, about 6-8 miles above the Earth's surface, and if there is sufficient energy remaining, a portion of the cloud will ascend into the stratosphere. The height of the mushroom cloud is not solely indicative of the power of the explosion, as even weaker explosions can result in high-reaching mushroom clouds if they are detonated at a high altitude.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Height of mushroom clouds | The height depends on the heat energy of the weapon and atmospheric conditions. The cloud may reach the tropopause (6-8 miles above the Earth's surface) and spread out, or enter the stratosphere. |
| Time to reach maximum height | Mushroom clouds from nukes can reach a height of over 20,000 meters in 10 minutes, with an initial upward expansion speed of 333 m/s. |
| Formation | Mushroom clouds are formed by Rayleigh-Taylor Instabilities in fluids, where hot, less dense fluids shoot through and rise above denser, cooler fluids. |
| Color | Initially red or reddish-brown due to nitrous acid and oxides of nitrogen. Later, it turns white due to water droplets and ice crystals. |
| Radioactivity | The mushroom cloud's head contains highly radioactive particles, including fission products and weapon debris. Lower-yield explosions have about 90% of their radioactivity in the head, while megaton-range explosions have most in the lower third. |
| Fallout | Larger, more radioactive particles fall out first, with smaller particles reaching higher altitudes and descending slowly. These smaller particles can stay in the stratosphere for extended periods, covering a hemisphere via atmospheric currents. |
| Shape | The mushroom shape is caused by the less dense hot air in the middle column of the sphere rising faster than the edges. The top flattens due to air resistance, forming the cap. |
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What You'll Learn
- The height of a mushroom cloud depends on the heat energy of the weapon and atmospheric conditions
- Clouds can reach the tropopause, 6-8 miles above the Earth's surface
- The cloud's colour changes from reddish-brown to white due to water droplets
- The mushroom shape is a sphere being thrust upwards and expanding
- The stem of the mushroom is formed by the jet of material being sucked into the vacuum
The height of a mushroom cloud depends on the heat energy of the weapon and atmospheric conditions
The height of a mushroom cloud depends on two key factors: the heat energy of the weapon and atmospheric conditions.
Firstly, the heat energy of the weapon plays a significant role in determining the height of the mushroom cloud. When a nuclear weapon detonates, it releases a massive amount of heat energy in a short period, causing a rapid expansion of hot air and gases. This hot air rises due to buoyancy, creating a vacuum that surrounding cooler air rushes in to fill. The faster the heat is generated and the greater its concentration, the more rapidly the air rises, expanding the cloud upwards. The size of the fireball, which determines the initial width of the mushroom cloud, is influenced by the yield of the weapon.
Secondly, atmospheric conditions influence the height of the mushroom cloud. As the hot air rises, it encounters resistance from the cooler, denser air above it, causing it to spread out laterally. If the cloud reaches the tropopause, approximately 6 to 8 miles above the Earth's surface, it tends to spread horizontally. However, if the cloud retains sufficient energy at this height, a portion of it can continue ascending into the stratosphere. The cloud reaches its maximum height in about 10 minutes and then stabilizes, after which it continues to expand laterally, forming the characteristic mushroom shape.
The interaction between the rapidly rising hot air and the surrounding cooler air is known as Rayleigh-Taylor instability. This phenomenon occurs when a less dense fluid (in this case, hot air) is supported by a denser fluid (cooler air), causing the less dense fluid to shoot through the denser one. The intense heat generated by the explosion accelerates this process, resulting in the upward growth of the mushroom cloud.
It is important to note that while mushroom clouds are commonly associated with nuclear explosions, they can also form following any event that generates rapid and intense heat, such as volcanic eruptions or large-scale fires. Therefore, the height of a mushroom cloud is influenced not only by the energy of the explosion but also by the atmospheric conditions that shape the rising hot air and determine the point at which it stabilizes.
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Clouds can reach the tropopause, 6-8 miles above the Earth's surface
The height of a mushroom cloud from a nuclear explosion depends on several factors, including the heat energy of the weapon and atmospheric conditions. The cloud can reach impressive altitudes, and its behaviour changes as it rises.
Mushroom clouds are not unique to nuclear explosions but can occur whenever there is a rapid release of heat in relatively cool surroundings. This is known as Rayleigh-Taylor instability, where the less dense hot air shoots through the more dense cold air, resulting in the characteristic mushroom shape.
As the fireball rises, it encounters resistance from the air above it, causing it to flatten and form the cap of the mushroom. The displaced gas trickles down the sides, only to be sucked back into the rising column. This process continues until the fireball reaches an area of the atmosphere where the air density matches that of the fireball, resulting in equilibrium.
The fireball rises to great heights, and if it reaches the tropopause, about 6-8 miles above the Earth's surface, it tends to spread out. If the radioactive cloud retains sufficient energy at this height, a portion of it can continue ascending into the stratosphere. The cloud reaches its maximum height in about 10 minutes and then stabilizes. However, it continues to grow laterally, forming the distinctive mushroom shape.
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The cloud's colour changes from reddish-brown to white due to water droplets
The height of a mushroom cloud from a nuke depends on the heat energy of the weapon and the atmospheric conditions. If the cloud reaches the tropopause, about 6-8 miles above the Earth's surface, it tends to spread out. However, if there is sufficient energy remaining, the cloud can ascend even higher into the stratosphere.
The mushroom cloud starts out at the same width as the initial fireball, with the fireball expanding in all directions. As the fireball increases in size and cools, vapors condense to form a cloud containing solid particles of weapon debris and small drops of water. The cloud's colour is initially reddish-brown due to the presence of nitrous acid and oxides of nitrogen. As the fireball cools further and condensation occurs, the colour changes to white, mainly due to the water droplets, in the same way an ordinary cloud forms. This colour change from reddish-brown to white can be observed in eyewitness accounts of the Hiroshima bombing:
> "It was a pale colour, with shades of violet, red, blue, and green," [...] "Those colours appeared in different parts of the cloud."
> "There were flames of orange, green, yellow, and purple," [...] "Soon after, the colour changed to grey."
The white colour of the cloud is caused by the condensation of water vapour out of the air as the fireball cools, forming water droplets and ice crystals. This phase change releases latent heat, heating the cloud and driving it to higher altitudes. The water droplets gradually evaporate, leading to the cloud's disappearance. However, the radioactive particles remain suspended in the air, continuing to deposit fallout.
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The mushroom shape is a sphere being thrust upwards and expanding
The iconic mushroom cloud produced by nuclear explosions is the result of complex interactions between the blast, the Earth's atmosphere, and gravity. While the initial blast forms a sphere that expands in all directions, the mushroom shape is a sphere being thrust upwards and expanding along its fronts, giving it a distinct appearance.
At the moment of detonation, a nuclear explosion generates a fireball that rapidly expands outward in all directions. This fireball is extremely hot and produces a shockwave that radiates spherically. As it expands, the fireball cools, and vapours condense to form a cloud containing weapon debris and water droplets from the surrounding air. This initial cloud is spherical, but it quickly transitions into the upward-thrusting mushroom shape due to several physical phenomena.
The fireball's intense heat creates a buoyant effect, where the hot, less dense air rises, similar to how hot air in a hot air balloon lifts the balloon upward. This upward movement is influenced by gravity and is guided along the path of least resistance. The ground acts as a backstop, helping to accelerate the mass away from the Earth's surface. As the hot air rises, it interacts with the surrounding colder, denser air, creating turbulent vortices that curl downward around its edges. This forms a temporary vortex ring that draws up a central column of smoke, dust, and vapour, creating the "stem" of the mushroom cloud.
The upward thrust is further enhanced by the Rayleigh-Taylor instability, where the low-density hot gases push against the high-density colder air, causing it to rise even higher. Additionally, the entrainment of higher-humidity air and the drop in pressure and temperature contribute to the formation of skirts and bells around the stem, adding complexity to the mushroom shape. The height reached by the mushroom cloud depends on the energy of the weapon and atmospheric conditions. If the cloud reaches the tropopause, it tends to spread out, and with sufficient energy, it can ascend into the stratosphere.
While the mushroom cloud is predominantly associated with nuclear explosions, it's important to note that it can occur with any large explosion under Earth's gravity. The formation of the mushroom shape is a result of the fundamental principles of fluid dynamics, heat transfer, and the behaviour of gases in the Earth's atmosphere.
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The stem of the mushroom is formed by the jet of material being sucked into the vacuum
When a nuclear bomb goes off, it releases a huge amount of heat energy, which expands in all directions. This creates a vacuum as the blast pushes almost all matter away. As the fireball increases in size and cools, the vapors condense to form a cloud containing solid particles of weapon debris, as well as small drops of water. This cloud is full of hot gases, dust, and debris.
The stem of the mushroom cloud is formed by the jet of material being sucked into the vacuum. As the hot air rises, it pulls in cool air from the sides, creating a strong updraft. This updraft of air and gas is drawn in from the sides and bottom to fill the space the hot cloud once occupied. The updraft carries material high into the sky, contributing to the formation of the stem. The stem is made up of dust and debris pulled up from the ground. The stem can also be referred to as the central column, which is a tall pillar of hot gas and debris that shoots up from the blast site.
The height of the mushroom cloud depends on the heat energy of the weapon and atmospheric conditions. The cloud can reach extremely high altitudes, even into the stratosphere, which is above the tropopause. The maximum height is typically reached about 10 minutes after the explosion. The height of the stem is influenced by the explosion's yield, with higher-yield explosions causing more intense updrafts.
The stem of the mushroom cloud is an important component of its overall structure. Without the upward movement of material forming the stem, the classic mushroom shape would not be possible. The stem plays a crucial role in shaping the cloud and lifting material to form the cap. The stem also contains radioactive particles, which can remain suspended in the air even after the cloud becomes invisible.
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Frequently asked questions
The height of a mushroom cloud depends on the heat energy of the weapon and the atmospheric conditions. The cloud can reach the tropopause, about 6-8 miles above the Earth's surface, and if there is sufficient energy remaining, a portion of it can ascend into the stratosphere.
Rayleigh-Taylor instability occurs when a fluid of lower density pushes on a fluid of higher density. In the context of mushroom clouds, the hot detonation gases and heated air are propelled at high velocity, creating a vacuum that is filled by the surrounding air, which also expands and rises.
The mushroom cloud is made of smoke and debris, including solid particles of weapon debris and small drops of water vapour derived from the air sucked into the rising fireball.
The reddish hue is due to the presence of nitrous acid and oxides of nitrogen. As the fireball cools and condensation occurs, the colour changes to white due to the water droplets.
The mushroom cloud may continue to be visible for about an hour or more before being dispersed by the wind and merging with natural clouds in the sky.
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