Michael Davis
Magic mushrooms, or shrooms, are naturally occurring psychedelic drugs that contain psilocybin, a psychotropic substance. When ingested, psilocybin is converted by the body into psilocin, a chemical with psychoactive properties. Psilocin attaches to serotonin receptors in the brain, altering brain activity and changing how different brain regions communicate with each other. This results in a profound change in consciousness, with enhanced sensory input, hallucinations, and a strong sense of connection. While magic mushrooms have been used for healing and spiritual rituals since ancient times, they are also associated with risks such as misidentification, toxic effects, and exacerbation of mental health issues. Current research focuses on the potential therapeutic benefits of psilocybin in treating mental health disorders and its ability to rewire the brain to ease conditions like depression and anxiety.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Common names | Magic mushrooms, shrooms, mushies, psychedelic mushrooms, psychotropic mushrooms, psilocybin |
| Scientific name | Psilocybin mushrooms, Psilocybe mushrooms |
| Active ingredients | Psilocybin, psilocin, norpsilocin, baeocystin, norbaeocystin, aeruginascin, harmine, harmane, norharmane, β-carbolines |
| Effects | Hallucinations, distorted sense of time, space and reality, perceptual changes, flashbacks, mood changes, increased heart rate, nausea, anxiety, paranoia, nervousness, drowsiness, relaxation, intense emotions, physical side effects, psychosis |
| Legal status | Possession and selling of fresh mushrooms and spores is legal in many places; dried mushrooms are almost always illegal; laws vary across nations |
| History | Used by indigenous people in Central America for healing and spiritual rituals since 3000 B.C.; represented in Stone Age rock art in Africa and Europe, and pre-Columbian sculptures and glyphs in the Americas |
| Therapeutic potential | Research underway to study the therapeutic effects of psilocybin in treating substance use disorders, depression, anxiety, PTSD, addiction, pain, neurodegenerative disorders, and other mental illnesses |
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What You'll Learn
Magic mushrooms' history in traditional ceremonies
Magic mushrooms, also known as psilocybin mushrooms, have a long history of use in traditional ceremonies. The heartland of psilocybin history is Central America, specifically Mesoamerica, where evidence of mushroom worship dates back to at least 1000 BCE. Among the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica, the Mixtec, Nahua, and Mazatec cultures have been particularly associated with the ceremonial use of psilocybin mushrooms.
The Aztecs, for example, referred to the mushrooms as "teonanácatl", or "flesh of the gods", and consumed them during religious ceremonies and psychedelic tea ceremonies. These ceremonies were designed to induce visionary states for divination, healing, and communing with the gods. Archaeological evidence, including mushroom-shaped sculptures and figurines, suggests that psilocybin mushrooms were also central to shamanistic rituals and healing ceremonies in Mesoamerica.
The Florentine Codex, a sixteenth-century colonial text, provides a detailed account of an Aztec mushroom ceremony performed by traders to give thanks for a successful expedition. Participants consumed the mushrooms with honey, drank chocolate, and danced to the sound of shell trumpets. When the mushrooms took effect, they experienced hallucinations, emotional changes, and a distorted sense of space, time, and reality.
In the mid-20th century, Western figures such as R. Gordon Wasson, Albert Hofmann, and Timothy Leary played a pivotal role in introducing psilocybin ceremonies to Western audiences. In 1955, Wasson became one of the first Westerners to participate in a Mazatec mushroom ceremony led by the healer María Sabina. His subsequent article in Life magazine sparked widespread interest in the potential of magic mushrooms, leading to further research and experimentation in the Western world.
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How psilocybin is converted into psilocin
Psilocybin, also known as 4-phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (4-PO-DMT), is a naturally occurring tryptamine alkaloid found in more than 200 species of mushrooms. It is a prodrug, meaning it is biologically inactive until it is converted by the body into psilocin, its active form.
Psilocybin is metabolized in the intestines, liver, kidneys, blood, and other tissues and bodily fluids. It undergoes dephosphorylation into psilocin via the acidic environment of the stomach or the actions of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and non-specific esterases in tissues and fluids. This process is inhibited by the competitive phosphatase inhibitor β-glycerolphosphate, which attenuates the behavioural effects of psilocybin in rodents.
Psilocin is a substrate of the monoamine oxidase (MAO) enzyme MAO-A and is chemically related to the neurotransmitter serotonin. It acts as a non-selective agonist of the serotonin receptors, primarily the serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A (5HT2a) receptor. Psilocin binds to and activates these receptors, affecting how the brain works and how different brain regions communicate with each other. These altered patterns of brain activity contribute to the profound change in consciousness experienced by those who consume psilocybin-containing mushrooms.
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The effects of psilocybin on the brain
Psilocybin, the naturally occurring psychedelic found in certain types of mushrooms, has a profound impact on the brain. When psilocybin is ingested, it is converted by the body into psilocin, a chemical with psychoactive properties. Psilocin binds to serotonin receptors in the brain, particularly the 5HT2a receptor. This binding action is believed to be responsible for the subjective experience of the user, causing hallucinations and altering their perception of time, space, and self.
Psilocybin induces significant changes in the brain's functional connectivity (FC), specifically in the default mode network, which is involved in internal thoughts and the sense of self. These changes are reflected in brain activity patterns, with normally stable patterns becoming scrambled after psilocybin ingestion. The greater the FC changes, the more intense the psychedelic experience. These changes can be observed through functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), which has revealed widespread alterations in brain regions such as the cerebral cortex, thalamus, hippocampus, and cerebellum.
The therapeutic effects of psilocybin are an active area of research, with potential benefits for mental health conditions like depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The drug may help in treating substance use disorders and other mental illnesses. The changes in brain connectivity caused by psilocybin could lead to a more flexible and healthier brain state, providing lasting effects on an individual's perception of self and the world.
While psilocybin can induce positive experiences and emotions, it is important to note that negative or frightening "bad trips" can also occur. The effects of psilocybin vary from person to person and can be influenced by factors such as mood, previous encounters with psychedelics, and the environment in which the drug is consumed.
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The legal status of mushrooms
The UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances requires its members to prohibit psilocybin, but the mushrooms containing the drug were not specifically included in the convention due to pressure from the Mexican government. Many countries have amended their drug laws to reflect the terms of the convention, including the UK Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, the US Psychotropic Substances Act of 1978, the Canadian Controlled Drugs and Substances Act of 1996, and the Japanese Narcotics and Psychotropics Control Law of 2002.
In some jurisdictions, Psilocybe spores are legal to sell and possess because they do not contain psilocybin or psilocin. Possession and selling of fresh mushrooms and spores (dried mushrooms are almost always illegal) is still legal in many places around the world. However, laws from nation to nation are inconsistent. For example, until 2005, it was legal to sell fresh magic mushrooms in Great Britain, and spore possession is still legal. The Netherlands banned the sale of dried mushrooms in 2001 and fresh mushrooms in 2008, but small amounts of "magic truffles" are still allowed. Mexico bans mushrooms outright.
In the United States, psilocybin and psilocin were first subjected to federal regulation by the Drug Abuse Control Amendments of 1965. Psilocybin is illegal under federal law and is classified as a Schedule I controlled substance with "no accepted medical use and a high potential for abuse." However, state laws vary, and in some places, psilocybin is legal or decriminalised for medicinal or therapeutic purposes. As of 2025, psilocybin is legalised in only two states: Oregon and Colorado. Oregon voters passed a 2020 ballot measure making it the first state to decriminalise psilocybin and legalise its supervised use. In 2024, much of the measure was repealed, effectively recriminalising it. Colorado followed with a similar medical use and decriminalisation measure in 2022. Other states, such as California, are reviewing bills to change legislation.
In October 2023, 'Massachusetts for Mental Health Options' received approval to pursue a ballot initiative for the 2024 elections to legalise psychedelics, including the home cultivation of entheogenic plants and fungi. In August 2024, the City Council in Olympia, Washington, decriminalised plant-based hallucinogens, including psilocybin mushrooms. In January 2025, the City Council in Tacoma, Washington, decriminalised natural psychedelics containing tryptamines, phenethylamines, and indolamines.
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The risks of consuming mushrooms
Mushrooms are a type of fungus that can be found in a variety of environments, including forests, fields, and even urban areas. While some mushrooms are edible and can provide various health benefits, others can be toxic and dangerous to consume. It is important to understand the risks associated with mushroom consumption to ensure safe and responsible usage.
One of the primary risks of consuming mushrooms is the potential for poisoning. There are many species of mushrooms that look similar to edible ones but are actually toxic. Even experienced foragers can mistakenly pick and consume poisonous mushrooms, leading to severe health consequences. Mushroom poisoning can cause a range of symptoms, including stomach pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, hallucinations, and in some cases, death. It is crucial to properly identify mushrooms before consuming them and to seek medical help immediately if any signs of poisoning occur.
Another risk associated with mushroom consumption is the possibility of an allergic reaction. Some people may be allergic to specific types of mushrooms, and ingesting them can trigger an allergic response. Symptoms of a mushroom allergy can include itching, hives, swelling of the throat or tongue, difficulty breathing, and anaphylaxis, which is a life-threatening reaction that requires immediate medical attention. Individuals with known allergies to other types of fungi, such as mold or yeast, may also be at a higher risk for a mushroom allergy.
In addition to the immediate health risks, there are potential long-term effects associated with mushroom consumption that deserve consideration. Certain types of mushrooms contain compounds that can have negative impacts on the body over time. For example, some mushrooms are high in oxalates, which can interfere with the absorption of calcium and other minerals, potentially leading to issues like kidney stones or bone loss. There are also concerns about the potential for certain mushrooms to accumulate heavy metals from the environment, such as lead or mercury, which could lead to toxic buildup in the body over prolonged and frequent consumption.
It is important to purchase mushrooms from reputable sources and to properly clean and prepare them to minimize potential risks. Wild mushrooms should only be consumed if they have been positively identified as safe by an expert. Additionally, individuals with pre-existing health conditions or those who are pregnant or breastfeeding should exercise caution and consult a healthcare professional before consuming mushrooms, as certain types may interact with medications or have unknown effects on fetal development. Overall, while mushrooms can be a nutritious and delicious addition to the diet for many people, it is essential to approach their consumption with knowledge and caution to avoid adverse consequences.
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Frequently asked questions
Magic mushrooms are psychedelic drugs that contain psilocybin, a naturally occurring substance. When ingested, psilocybin is converted by the body into psilocin, a chemical with psychoactive properties.
Psilocin attaches to and activates serotonin receptors in the brain, specifically the 5-HT2A receptor. This affects how the brain works and how different brain regions communicate with each other, resulting in altered patterns of brain activity and a profound change in consciousness.
The effects of magic mushrooms vary depending on dosage, individual physiology, and the type of mushroom consumed. Common effects include hallucinations, distorted perception of objects, intensified emotions, altered sense of time, and a feeling of connection to a higher power.
Magic mushrooms are generally not considered safe due to the risk of misidentifying mushrooms and consuming toxic species. They can also exacerbate mental health issues and cause adverse reactions, such as extreme fear, anxiety, paranoia, and "bad trips." However, research suggests that psilocybin has a low toxicity level and a low potential for causing fatal events. Small-scale clinical trials have shown that psilocybin can be effective in treating mental health disorders when used in a controlled therapeutic setting.
