John Miller
Mushrooms have been consumed and used for various purposes by humans for thousands of years. They are the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting bodies of fungi, typically growing above ground on soil or another food source. While the origin and evolution of mushrooms remain largely unknown, with only 2% of species identified, recent fossil discoveries suggest that mushrooms first evolved on Earth between 715 and 810 million years ago. This discovery challenges previous beliefs that mushrooms appeared during the Cambrian period, approximately 500 million years ago. Mushrooms have played a significant role in human history, with archaeological evidence indicating their use in spiritual and cultural practices by ancient civilisations such as the Greeks, Mayans, Aztecs, and Vikings. Today, mushrooms are widely used in cooking, textile dyeing, and continue to be explored for their therapeutic potential and nutritional value enhancement.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| First appearance on Earth | Between 715 and 810 million years ago |
| First mushrooms evolved | 300 million years earlier than previously believed |
| Oldest mushroom fossil | 460 million years old |
| First mushrooms evolved on Earth | 715-810 million years ago |
| Earliest known mushroom-forming fungi | Archaeomarasmius legletti, 90 million years ago |
| Earliest terrestrial fungus fossils | South China, 635 million years ago |
| Earliest terrestrial fungus fossils | Canadian Arctic, 1 billion years ago |
| Earliest terrestrial fungus fossils | South Africa, 2.4 billion years ago |
| Use in ancient cultures | Egyptians, Greeks, Mayans, Aztecs, Vikings, Romans |
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What You'll Learn
Prehistoric foraging
While the origin and evolution of mushrooms are still largely unknown, with only 2% of species identified, it is believed that mushrooms have been foraged since prehistoric times. The earliest fossil evidence of mushroom-forming fungi dates back to the mid-Cretaceous, 90 million years ago. However, recent discoveries have suggested that mushrooms may have evolved much earlier, with fossilized remains of mycelium (a network of interconnected microscopic strands) found in rocks dating between 715 and 810 million years old.
The role of fungi in the prehistoric diet is supported by archaeological evidence of mushroom use in ancient cultures such as the Ancient Greeks, the Mayans, and the Vikings. For example, the Ancient Greeks drank ergot mushrooms during ceremonies, and the Vikings were believed to have consumed fly agaric mushrooms before battles, inducing a bloodthirsty state. The Romans also had a relationship with mushrooms, as the philosopher Galen wrote about wild fungi.
In addition to their dietary use, mushrooms also held spiritual significance in prehistoric societies. Archaeological evidence suggests that hallucinogenic mushrooms were used in spiritual practices as early as 10,000 BCE. For example, the Mayans consumed hallucinogenic mushrooms during rituals, as evidenced by the Spanish missionary Bernardino de Sahagun's observations of indigenous people consuming "Teonanacatl" (flesh of the gods) and experiencing visions.
The distribution of mushrooms in prehistoric times was likely through foraging in natural environments such as forests and fields. Mushrooms, with their fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting bodies, would have been sought after for their culinary, medicinal, and spiritual properties. However, it is important to note that the distinction between edible and poisonous mushrooms is complex, and incorrect identification could have dangerous consequences.
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Ancient civilisations' use
The use of mushrooms dates back to ancient civilizations, with archaeological evidence suggesting that they were used for various purposes, including food and spiritual practices. Here is a detailed overview of mushroom usage in ancient civilizations:
Ancient Egypt
In ancient Egypt, mushrooms were considered the "food of the gods". Egyptians believed that consuming mushrooms could grant them longevity or even immortality. This belief highlights the high regard in which mushrooms were held in ancient Egyptian culture.
Ancient Greece
The Ancient Greeks are known to have consumed ergot mushrooms during certain ceremonies. The consumption of these mushrooms often led to visions and otherworldly experiences. This practice indicates the incorporation of mushrooms into their spiritual and cultural rituals.
Mayans and Aztecs
The Mayans and Aztecs, ancient civilizations in Mesoamerica, also consumed hallucinogenic mushrooms as part of their cultural practices. Notably, Montezuma II, the last ruler of the Aztecs, is said to have consumed a significant amount of "Teonanacatl" (translated as "flesh of the gods") during his coronation ceremony. This term underscores the sacred and divine nature attributed to mushrooms in their culture.
Vikings
The Vikings, known for their fearsome reputation as warriors, also have a history with mushrooms. According to the Great Norwegian Encyclopedia, the Berserkers, a notorious subgroup of Vikings, exhibited uncontrollable bloodlust in battle, indiscriminately attacking friend and foe alike. It was initially believed that this state was induced by the consumption of fly agaric mushrooms. However, medieval chronicles suggest that they might have resorted to another type of psychoactive mushroom.
Ancient China and Japan
Shiitake mushrooms (Lentinula edodes) were likely cultivated in ancient China and Japan as early as 600 CE. This indicates that mushroom cultivation was already an established practice in these ancient civilizations, contributing to their culinary traditions.
The usage of mushrooms in these ancient civilizations showcases their integral role in various aspects of human life, including cuisine, medicine, spirituality, and cultural rituals.
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Wild mushroom foraging today
Mushrooms have probably been foraged since prehistoric times. The practice of wild mushroom foraging continues to this day, with many people partaking in it. However, it is not without its risks and challenges.
Mushroom foraging can be a safe and enjoyable activity with proper preparation and education on identification. It is crucial to distinguish between edible and poisonous mushrooms, as some species can cause severe symptoms or even death. To ensure safety, foragers are advised to use identification books or apps, consult experts, and thoroughly cook wild mushrooms before consumption.
Foraging in groups or with a trained dog companion is recommended for safety and efficiency. Additionally, checking local regulations and obtaining permits for mushroom foraging in certain public lands is essential to avoid legal issues.
The popularity of wild mushroom foraging has led to environmental concerns. Increased foot traffic can result in negative impacts, such as littering, plant trampling, and overforaging. It is important for foragers to follow regulations and respect the environment to mitigate these issues.
While serious mushroom cultivation is energy-intensive, smaller mushroom-growing operations are adopting environmentally friendly practices, such as composting spent mushroom substrates. For those interested in sustainable and local options, checking local farmer's markets for organically grown mushrooms is a viable alternative to foraging.
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Farming and environmental impact
Mushroom farming can be energy-intensive, requiring high-tech climate and humidity control. However, it is possible to farm mushrooms sustainably, and many mushroom farms are trying to become more environmentally friendly. Mushrooms can be grown on lignocellulose substrates such as crop residue, processed waste, horticultural waste, sawdust, and wood chips, converting low-value waste materials to high-quality food. They can be cultivated in a controlled indoor environment using waste products, reducing the amount of waste sent to landfills. They also require fewer resources than traditional crops, needing little water and space, and fewer pesticides and herbicides. This makes them an excellent crop for urban farming.
Mushroom farming can also help remediate contaminated soil and water. Some mushrooms break down harmful chemicals and toxins, making them valuable for environmental cleanup. They can also help control pollution by consuming organic materials that would otherwise be discarded. For example, post-mushroom substrate can be mixed with fresh animal manure, allowing corn farmers to add the necessary quantity of manure without excess nitrates leaching into the ground.
However, there are still some environmental concerns associated with mushroom farming. The disposal of spent compost is a problem for many growers, as piles of spent substrate can become anaerobic and give off offensive odors, or drain into nearby water sources. Additionally, farms have been scrutinized for pest control practices, pesticide residues, and worker protection standards, although improved pesticide safety practices are helping to address these issues.
Wild mushroom foraging can also have negative environmental impacts. With the rise in popularity of wild harvesting, rules are being broken, and people are leaving trash, trampling plants, and taking more than allowed.
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Fungi evolution
The evolution of fungi is a fascinating and complex topic. Fungi are not plants, but they were once classified as such and share a common ancestor with animals in the eukaryotic supergroup Opisthokonta. Fungi also have a deeper common ancestry with plants, but several phenotypes make them unique among living organisms.
Fungi diverged from other life around 1.5 billion years ago, according to DNA analysis. The earliest fossils possessing features typical of fungi date to the Palaeoproterozoic era, around 2.4 billion years ago. These fossils had filamentous structures capable of anastomosis, where hyphal branches recombine. Other estimates place the arrival of fungal organisms at about 760–1060 million years ago, based on comparisons of the evolution rate in closely related groups.
For much of the Paleozoic Era, fungi appear to have been aquatic, consisting of organisms similar to Chytrids, with flagellum-bearing spores. Phylogenetic analyses suggest that the majority of fungal species lost their flagellum early in their evolutionary history. The transition from an aquatic to a terrestrial lifestyle required fungi to develop new ecological strategies to obtain nutrients, including parasitism, saprobism, and mutualistic relations.
The earliest terrestrial fungus fossils, or fungus-like fossils, have been found in South China and date back around 635 million years. Researchers suggest that these organisms may have contributed to oxygenating the Earth's atmosphere after the Cryogenian glaciations. About 250 million years ago, fungi became abundant in many areas, and may even have been the dominant form of life on Earth.
The fossil record of fungi is generally considered to be scarce, but molecular data and biochemical markers have helped to map their probable evolutionary relationships.
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Frequently asked questions
Mushrooms have been foraged since prehistoric times and were likely distributed through foraging and cultivation.
Shiitakes (Lentinula edodes) were likely cultivated in China and Japan as early as 600 CE.
Archaeological evidence suggests that mushrooms were used "spiritually" as early as 10,000 BCE, and there is documentation of their use in various ancient cultures, including the Ancient Greeks, the Mayans, and the Vikings.
In 2020, researchers from the Université libre de Bruxelles discovered fossilized remains of mycelium in rocks dated between 715 and 810 million years old, suggesting that mushrooms evolved much earlier than previously thought.
Ancient cultures such as the Greeks, Egyptians, and Aztecs consumed hallucinogenic mushrooms in various ceremonies and rituals. For example, the Spanish missionary Bernardino de Sahagun observed indigenous people consuming "Teonanacatl" (flesh of the gods) during a gathering, which involved dancing and visions.
