Sarah Brown
Hydrazines are a group of chemical compounds that are generally considered carcinogenic. They occur naturally and have been found in relatively high amounts in a number of mushroom species, including Gyromitra esculenta and Agaricus bisporus, the latter being the most commonly consumed edible mushroom. Agaricus bisporus, also known as the common button mushroom, is cultivated in over 70 countries and on every continent except Antarctica. The highest amount of agaritine, a naturally occurring phenylhydrazine derivative, is found in the cap and gills of the fruiting body, and the lowest in the stem. While agaritine has been described in some studies as a potential carcinogen, there is inadequate evidence to classify it as carcinogenic to humans in amounts ingested from consuming mushrooms.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Types of hydrazines found in mushrooms | Agaritine, N2-[L-(+)-glutamyl]-4-(hydroxymethylphenyl)hydrazine, 4-hydrazinobenzoic acid, N′-acetyl-4-(hydroxymethyl)phenylhydrazine, acetaldehyde methylformylhydrazone, N-methyl-N-formylhydrazine (MFH), beta-N-[gamma-L(+)-glutamyl]-4-hydroxymethylphenylhydrazine, 4-hydroxymethylphenylhydrazine, monomethylhydrazine (MMH), gyromitrin |
| Mushrooms that contain hydrazines | Agaricus bisporus, Gyromitra esculenta, wild false morel, cultivated mushroom, beefsteak mushrooms |
| Effects of hydrazines | Carcinogenic, Mutagenic, Toxicological, Induction of tumors in animals, Gastro-intestinal irritation, Allergenic reaction |
| Safety considerations | Cooking mushrooms can reduce the presence of hydrazines and the risk of adverse effects; however, the effectiveness of cooking varies depending on the mushroom species |
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What You'll Learn
- Agaritine: a naturally occurring hydrazine derivative in mushrooms
- Hydrazine carcinogenicity: studies have described hydrazines as carcinogenic, but evidence is mixed
- Heat sensitivity: cooking mushrooms can reduce hydrazine levels
- Hydrazine in wild vs. cultivated mushrooms: wild mushrooms may contain higher levels of hydrazine
- Hydrazine bioactivation: hydrazines can be converted into mutagenic products by enzymes
Agaritine: a naturally occurring hydrazine derivative in mushrooms
Mushrooms are a type of fungus that has been consumed by humans for centuries. They are considered a health-promoting food and are cultivated or sold commercially worldwide. However, there has been ongoing research into the potential health risks associated with consuming certain types of mushrooms, specifically those containing hydrazine compounds.
Hydrazines are a class of chemical compounds that are generally considered carcinogenic. They occur naturally and have been found in relatively high amounts in certain mushroom species, such as Gyromitra esculenta and Agaricus bisporus. Agaricus bisporus, also known as the common button mushroom, is widely cultivated and consumed. It is important to note that the carcinogenic effects of hydrazines have been observed in laboratory studies using high doses that may not be relevant to the amounts typically ingested from consuming mushrooms.
Agaritine, an aromatic hydrazine-derivative mycotoxin, is a naturally occurring compound found in fresh samples of various mushroom species, including Agaricus, Leucoagaricus, and Macrolepiota. It is the principal hydrazine found in the edible mushroom Agaricus bisporus. Agaritine content varies between individual mushrooms and across species, with the highest concentration typically found in the cap and gills of the fruiting body.
While agaritine has been described in some studies as a potential carcinogen, the scientific validity of these claims has been questioned and contradicted by other research. Feeding studies using mushrooms and mushroom extracts have generally found no evidence of toxicological effects from agaritine consumption. The available evidence suggests that consuming cultivated Agaricus bisporus mushrooms with agaritine poses no known toxicological risk to healthy humans.
It is worth mentioning that proper cooking methods can reduce the likelihood of gastrointestinal irritation and allergenic reactions associated with consuming certain mushrooms. Additionally, cooking can help volatilize and remove hydrazine compounds, such as gyromitrin, which is found in the false morel mushroom (Gyromitra esculenta). However, some argue that this compound is never completely eliminated, and there may be potential health risks associated with repeated consumption.
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Hydrazine carcinogenicity: studies have described hydrazines as carcinogenic, but evidence is mixed
Hydrazines are a class of chemical carcinogens that are found naturally in several mushroom species, including Gyromitra esculenta and Agaricus bisporus. Agaricus bisporus, also known as the common button mushroom, is cultivated in over 70 countries and is the most commonly consumed edible mushroom.
Agaritine, an aromatic hydrazine-derivative mycotoxin, is the principal hydrazine found in Agaricus bisporus mushrooms. It is also present in fresh samples of at least 24 species of the genera Agaricus, Leucoagaricus, and Macrolepiota. Agaritine content varies between individual mushrooms and across species, with the highest amounts found in the cap and gills of the fruiting body and the lowest in the stem.
While hydrazines have been described as carcinogenic in some studies, the evidence is mixed. Older studies have shown that hydrazine exhibits carcinogenic effects after toxic or subtoxic doses. However, more recent studies have yielded negative results, even with maximum tolerable doses. For example, in one study, rats were administered hydrazine in drinking water at concentrations of 0 mg/l, 2 mg/l, 10 mg/l, and 50 mg/l. The concentration of 2 mg/l was tolerated with minimal damage, 10 mg/l was the maximum tolerable dose, and 50 mg/l was toxic, although survival times were not significantly affected.
Furthermore, while Agaritine has been recognized as an experimental carcinogen when used in high laboratory doses, there is inadequate evidence to classify it as carcinogenic to humans in the amounts typically ingested from consuming mushrooms. In conclusion, while hydrazines have been implicated as carcinogens in some studies, the available evidence suggests that their carcinogenicity may be weak or uncertain, and further research is needed to definitively establish their hazardous nature.
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Heat sensitivity: cooking mushrooms can reduce hydrazine levels
Mushrooms are a type of fungus that is widely consumed and cultivated around the world. However, some species of mushrooms, such as Gyromitra esculenta, also known as "false morels", contain hydrazine compounds that are potentially toxic to humans. These compounds include monomethylhydrazine, acetaldehyde methylformylhydrazone, and N-methyl-N-formylhydrazine (MFH), which can yield methylhydrazine under certain conditions. Hydrazines are a group of chemical compounds that are generally considered carcinogenic, and they have been linked to the formation of tumours in various tissues in animal studies.
Agaricus bisporus, commonly known as the button mushroom, is another species of mushroom that contains hydrazine compounds, specifically agaritine, a natural mycotoxin. Agaricus bisporus is cultivated in over 70 countries and is of socio-economic importance in developed nations. While agaritine has been recognised as an experimental carcinogen in high laboratory doses, there is insufficient evidence to classify it as carcinogenic to humans when consumed in typical amounts found in mushrooms.
The presence of hydrazine compounds in mushrooms has raised concerns about their safety for human consumption, especially when eaten raw. Cooking mushrooms can significantly reduce the levels of hydrazines present. For example, agaritine has been shown to decompose upon cooking, with a reduction of up to 90%. Proper cooking techniques can effectively volatilise and expel hydrazines from the mushroom flesh, reducing the potential health risks associated with their consumption.
It is important to note that some mushrooms contain irritating or toxic components that are readily destroyed or eliminated by cooking. Therefore, common wisdom suggests that all edible mushrooms should be cooked before consumption, unless specific knowledge indicates that a particular species is safe to eat raw. Cooking also helps break down the fungal cell walls, making the mushroom flesh more digestible and allowing for the release of significant nutritional value.
When cooking mushrooms, it is important to stand well clear of the fumes, as hydrazines are heat-sensitive and can be volatilised during the cooking process. By following proper cooking techniques and taking precautions, the potential risks associated with hydrazine compounds in mushrooms can be mitigated, making them safer for consumption.
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Hydrazine in wild vs. cultivated mushrooms: wild mushrooms may contain higher levels of hydrazine
Hydrazine is a group of chemical compounds that are generally considered carcinogenic. Agaritine, a naturally occurring phenylhydrazine derivative, is the principal hydrazine found in the edible mushroom Agaricus bisporus, also known as the common button mushroom. Agaricus bisporus is cultivated in over 70 countries worldwide and is of socioeconomic importance in developed countries.
Agaritine is also present in wild and cultivated mushrooms of the Agaricus genus, including Leucoagaricus and Macrolepiota species. The content of agaritine varies between individual mushrooms and across species, with the highest amount found in the cap and gills of the fruiting body and the lowest in the stem. In raw Agaricus bisporus, agaritine content ranges from 0.033% to 0.173% of fresh weight, with an average of 0.088%.
While agaritine is recognized as an experimental carcinogen when used in high laboratory doses, there is inadequate evidence to classify it as carcinogenic to humans in the amounts ingested from consuming mushrooms. Some studies have reported potential carcinogenic effects of agaritine and chemically synthesized hydrazine compounds in mice, but these studies administered non-physiologically relevant doses. Other studies using the same mouse model and rat models have provided contradictory data, with no toxicological effects observed.
In addition to Agaricus bisporus, the wild false morel Gyromitra esculenta also contains hydrazine compounds. Gyromitrin, a naturally occurring compound in this mushroom, converts to monomethylhydrazine (MMH) when heated. Some individuals believe that thorough cooking effectively removes hydrazine compounds, but others argue that gyromitrin is never completely eliminated and that there may be harmful cumulative factors associated with repeated consumption.
While the carcinogenicity of hydrazines in mushrooms has been a subject of study, the research on mushroom edibility is still evolving. The decision to consume wild or cultivated mushrooms containing hydrazines is an individual choice, and further scientific research is needed to comprehensively understand the health effects of these compounds when present in mushroom species.
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Hydrazine bioactivation: hydrazines can be converted into mutagenic products by enzymes
Hydrazines are a class of chemical carcinogens that are found in mushrooms. They are converted into reactive intermediates by enzyme systems, which express their carcinogenicity. The major hydrazine present in mushrooms is agaritine, which is found in high concentrations in raw mushrooms. It is a substrate for gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase and is converted into a highly reactive diazonium ion derivative that promotes apparent mutagenicity.
The mutagenicity of agaritine and other hydrazine compounds has been investigated in the Ames test, using Salmonella typhimurium strain TA104. This test has shown that agaritine is a direct mutagen and that the standard activation system does not significantly influence its mutagenic response. However, the mutagenic response of agaritine was enhanced in the presence of purified mushroom tyrosinase and rat hepatic cytosol.
Mushroom tyrosinase can convert N'-acetyl-4-(hydroxymethyl)phenylhydrazine to mutagenic products. When the mutagenicity of four compounds, including N'-acetyl-4-(hydroxymethyl)phenylhydrazine, was evaluated in the presence of rat hepatic cytosol, an increase was observed only in the case of N'-acetyl-4-(hydroxymethyl)phenylhydrazine. This increase was due to deacetylation, which released the more mutagenic free hydrazine.
The activation of agaritine involves an initial loss of the gamma-glutamyl group, followed by microsomal oxidation of the free hydrazine to generate the diazonium ion. This process is similar to the bioactivation of other mushroom hydrazines, such as those found in the wild false morel Gyromitra esculenta and the commonly consumed Agaricus bisporus. The studies by Toth and colleagues have shown that the lifetime administration of these mushrooms can induce tumours in the digestive tract, liver, and lungs.
While hydrazines have been identified as carcinogens in high laboratory doses, there is inadequate evidence to classify them as carcinogenic to humans in the amounts ingested from consuming mushrooms.
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Frequently asked questions
Hydrazines are a class of chemical carcinogens that express their carcinogenicity following metabolism to reactive intermediates, catalysed by enzyme systems.
Agaricus bisporus, also known as the common button mushroom, is an edible mushroom that contains hydrazine. Gyromitra esculenta, a wild false morel, also contains hydrazine.
Although hydrazines are carcinogenic, there is inadequate evidence to classify them as harmful to humans in the amounts ingested from consuming mushrooms. The available evidence suggests that hydrazines from the consumption of cultivated A. bisporus mushrooms pose no known toxicological risk to healthy humans.
