Michael Davis
Mushrooms are a tasty treat and a great source of food, but some species are extremely toxic and can even be deadly. Many species of fungi contain toxins as a form of self-defence, and mushrooms have evolved mechanisms to keep themselves alive so that they can reproduce. The world's deadliest mushrooms include the Death Cap, Web Cap, Destroying Angels, Poisonous Conocybe Filaris, Autumn Skullcap, and the Annatto-Colored mushroom. These mushrooms contain toxins that can cause liver and kidney failure, and even death. It is important to be able to identify these deadly mushrooms to avoid accidental poisoning, as they often resemble edible species.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Deadliest mushroom | Amanita phalloides (Death Cap) |
| Toxins | Amatoxins, antamanide, phallotoxins |
| Toxin effects | Amatoxins are thermostable, resisting changes due to heat and cold. Amatoxins disrupt cell metabolism and damage organs, including the liver and heart. Phallotoxins contain at least seven compounds with seven similar peptide rings. |
| Symptoms | Violent abdominal pain, vomiting, bloody diarrhea, rapid loss of fluids, intense thirst, liver and kidney failure, death |
| Time to symptoms | 6-12 hours after consumption |
| Similarity to edible mushrooms | Resembles Caesar's mushroom and straw mushroom |
| Notable cases | Suspected in the assassination of Roman Emperor Claudius in 54 AD |
| Other deadly mushrooms | Webcaps (Cortinarius rubellus and Cortinarius orellanus), Destroying Angels, Deadly Dapperling, Podostroma cornu-damae, Fly Agaric |
| General advice | Do not serve wild mushrooms to young children, old or sick people. Do not consume large quantities in one sitting. Always cook mushrooms. |
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What You'll Learn
- Death Caps, responsible for the majority of fatal mushroom poisonings
- Webcaps, which cause kidney failure and death if untreated
- Destroying Angels, the most common toxic mushroom worldwide
- Autumn Skullcaps, which cause liver failure and death within a week
- Fly Agaric, a toadstool that causes loss of coordination and hallucinations
Death Caps, responsible for the majority of fatal mushroom poisonings
Death caps, or Amanita phalloides, are responsible for the majority of fatal mushroom poisonings worldwide. They are native to Europe and were introduced to other parts of the world in the late 20th century, now present on every continent except Antarctica. Death caps are highly toxic and extremely dangerous, bearing a resemblance to several edible mushroom species, such as Caesar's mushroom and the straw mushroom. This similarity in appearance, along with their pleasant taste, contributes to the high number of unintentional poisonings.
The death cap contains three main types of mycotoxin: amatoxins, phallotoxins, and virotoxins. Amatoxins are extremely toxic compounds that travel through the bloodstream, disrupting cell metabolism and damaging vital organs, especially the liver and kidneys. Phallotoxins are also highly toxic to liver cells, but they are not absorbed through the gut and thus contribute less to the overall toxicity. The specific toxic mechanism involves the inhibition of RNA polymerase II, an enzyme crucial for protein synthesis and cell metabolism.
Symptoms of death cap poisoning typically manifest in three stages. The first stage, the Gastrointestinal Phase, occurs 6 to 24 hours after ingestion and includes nausea, abdominal pain, vomiting, and diarrhoea. In the second stage, the Latent Phase, the symptoms may subside, giving a false impression of recovery. However, the toxins continue to damage the liver and kidneys during this period. The final stage, the Hepatorenal Phase, is marked by the failure of the liver and kidneys, requiring extreme medical intervention to prevent fatal organ damage.
It is crucial to seek immediate medical attention if death cap poisoning is suspected. Treatments vary depending on the time elapsed since ingestion, with early intervention focusing on stabilising the patient and counteracting the toxin's effects. In advanced cases, liver transplantation may become necessary. It is important to note that cooking, drying, or freezing death cap mushrooms does not reduce their toxicity.
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Webcaps, which cause kidney failure and death if untreated
While there are around 70-80 species of poisonous mushrooms, only a few are fatal when ingested. One of the most deadly mushrooms is the webcap mushroom, or deadly webcap (Cortinarius rubellus). Native to northern Europe, this mushroom is often mistaken for other edible species, such as the chanterelle, due to its plain, tawny-brown cap and brownish stem. However, ingestion of this mushroom is often fatal, with symptoms taking up to three weeks to appear.
The deadly webcap features a poison known as orellanin, which causes symptoms similar to the common flu. Orellanin has a long latency period, leading to misdiagnosis. If left untreated, the toxin causes irreversible kidney failure and can lead to death. In 2008, English author Nicholas Evans mistakenly served webcap mushrooms to his relatives, resulting in four hospitalizations and three kidney transplants.
The Cortinarius genus, to which the deadly webcap belongs, is notoriously challenging to identify, and many species within this genus are highly toxic. As a result, experts advise against consuming any Cortinarius mushrooms, as mistaken identification can have severe consequences. The deadly webcap is being studied for its potential in treating renal cancer, with scientists developing new processes that involve the use of its cytotoxin in targeted ways to fight cancer cells.
The deadly webcap is part of a family of seven Cortinarius species known as the Orellani, all of which are highly toxic and cause irreversible kidney failure. The danger of poisoning from this mushroom was first recognized in 1972 in Finland, and cases have also occurred in Sweden, Austria, and the UK.
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Destroying Angels, the most common toxic mushroom worldwide
Destroying Angels are among the most toxic mushrooms in the world. They are a group of closely related species of deadly all-white mushrooms in the genus Amanita. They are Amanita virosa in Europe, Amanita bisporigera in eastern North America, and Amanita ocreata in western North America. Amanita verna, also known as the "fool's mushroom", is another European species referred to as the destroying angel.
Destroying Angels are characterised by their gills and white stalks. The cap can be pure white, or white at the edge with a yellowish, pinkish, or tan centre. They have a partial veil or ring circling the upper stalk, and the gills are not attached to the stalk. They are found in woodlands, grassy meadows, and lawns across Europe and North America.
Destroying Angels contain amatoxins, which are toxic compounds that travel through the bloodstream and disrupt cell metabolism, consequently damaging many organs, including the liver and heart. Amatoxins are thermostable, meaning they resist changes due to heat and cold, so their toxic effects are not reduced by cooking or freezing. Just half a mushroom cap can be fatal if the victim is not treated quickly enough. Symptoms include vomiting, cramps, delirium, convulsions, and diarrhoea, and they can appear as soon as 5 to 24 hours after ingestion.
Due to their similarity to edible fungi such as the button mushroom, meadow mushroom, or horse mushroom, Destroying Angels are often accidentally consumed by people foraging for mushrooms. It is recommended that foragers know how to recognise Destroying Angels and Death Caps before collecting any white-gilled mushrooms for consumption.
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Autumn Skullcaps, which cause liver failure and death within a week
Autumn Skullcaps, or Galerina marginata, are a species of highly poisonous mushroom-forming fungi. They are often confused with edible honey mushrooms, which can be fatal. Autumn Skullcaps are common throughout the Northern Hemisphere and parts of Australia. They are gilled, wood-rotting mushrooms with the same amatoxins as the death cap mushroom. Amatoxins are toxins that interfere with protein synthesis and cause liver failure.
The initial symptoms of Autumn Skullcap poisoning usually appear 6-12 hours after ingestion and include persistent vomiting, diarrhoea, dehydration, and abdominal cramps/pain. Signs of acute liver injury typically show up on blood work after 36 hours. Depending on the amount ingested, and the timeline of medical intervention, poisoning can progress to liver and kidney failure or death. If Galerina marginata poisoning is suspected, it is important to go to the emergency room and bring a sample of the mushroom if possible.
The cap of the Autumn Skullcap is light honey-brown to cinnamon-brown and can change as the mushroom matures. The cap is typically slightly slimy to sticky when wet but otherwise tacky when dry. The size of the cap can vary from 0.5 inches when young to 3.25 inches across at maturity. The shape of the cap starts out slightly bell to convex-shaped and expands to broadly convex to flat when mature. The gills of the Autumn Skullcap are attached to the stipe and slightly subdecurrent. They are not crowded and start out honey-brown, turning to a darker rust-brown as the spores mature. A well-defined membranous ring is typically seen on the stems of young specimens but often disappears with age.
Autumn Skullcaps are a significant cause of acute fulminant liver failure. The toxins in these mushrooms severely affect the liver, resulting in gastrointestinal bleeding, a coma, kidney failure, or even death, usually within seven days of consumption.
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Fly Agaric, a toadstool that causes loss of coordination and hallucinations
While only a few of the 70-80 species of poisonous mushrooms are fatal when ingested, many of these deadly fungi bear an unfortunate resemblance to edible mushrooms. The Death Cap, for instance, resembles several edible and popularly eaten species, such as Caesar's mushroom, and is responsible for the majority of fatal mushroom poisonings.
One of the most recognisable fungi in the world, the Fly Agaric, or Amanita Muscaria, is a large white-gilled, white-spotted mushroom with a bright red cap covered with distinctive white warts. It is native to the forests of the Northern Hemisphere and is now also found in the Southern Hemisphere.
Fly Agaric exhibits complex genetic diversity, suggesting it is a species complex rather than a single species. It gets its name from its traditional use as an insecticide. It is also hallucinogenic, due to psychoactive compounds like muscimol and ibotenic acid. However, fatal poisonings from this mushroom are extremely rare.
The effects of Fly Agaric usually kick in between 30 and 90 minutes after ingestion and can last for several hours. It can affect your sense of perception of the size of objects, as well as your coordination and balance. It can also cause hallucinations and hysteria. The mushroom is not considered a top-tier option in terms of flavour, and boiling the mushroom in water for an extended period can remove its toxins.
The same compounds that make Fly Agaric poisonous also give it psychoactive properties. The toxins are water-soluble, and the mushroom has been used for centuries for its hallucinogenic effects. Initially, researchers believed the compound muscarine was responsible, but it is now known that the primary cause of the hallucinations and sensory effects is the presence of two isoxazole compounds, ibotenic acid and muscimol. These compounds target the GABA receptors in the brain, resulting in states of anxiety or excitement.
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Frequently asked questions
Some of the world's deadliest mushrooms include:
- Amanita phalloides, commonly known as the Death Cap.
- Conocybe filaris, a common lawn mushroom in the Pacific Northwest of the United States.
- Cortinarius rubellus, also known as the Deadly Webcap, native to northern Europe.
- Galerina marginata, also known as Autumn Skullcap, found throughout the Northern Hemisphere and parts of Australia.
The symptoms of mushroom poisoning vary depending on the type of mushroom ingested, but some common symptoms include:
- Gastrointestinal issues such as intense diarrhoea, vomiting, and abdominal pain.
- Liver and kidney failure.
- Nervous system disorders, including delirium and hallucinations.
- Hair loss and organ failure (in the case of a red mushroom found in Asia that contains trichothecenes).
The onset of symptoms depends on the type of mushroom ingested. For some mushrooms, symptoms may appear within 6-24 hours, while for others, it may take several days or even up to three weeks for symptoms to manifest.
To avoid mushroom poisoning, it is essential to correctly identify mushrooms before consuming them. Some tips for avoiding mushroom poisoning include:
- Picking the mushroom in its entirety, as the presence of a volva and its overall appearance are important for correct identification.
- Being cautious of mushrooms that resemble edible varieties, such as Caesar's mushroom, honey mushrooms, or meadow mushrooms.
- Cooking mushrooms thoroughly and in small amounts, discarding the water from the first boiling.
