Sarah Brown
Magic mushrooms, or psilocybin mushrooms, are a type of hallucinogenic mushroom that contains the prodrug psilocybin, which turns into the psychedelic psilocin upon ingestion. Psilocybin is a naturally occurring psychedelic found in certain types of mushrooms. After ingestion, psilocybin is converted into the pharmacologically active form of psilocin, which is the chemical with psychoactive properties. Psilocybin and psilocin are both indolealkylamines and structurally similar to the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT). The effects of psilocybin include euphoria, changes in perception, a distorted sense of time, and perceived spiritual experiences.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Chemicals released | Psilocybin, psilocin, baeocystin, norbaeocystin, β-carbolines (e.g. harmine, harmane, tetrahydroharmine, harmaline) |
| Chemical structure | C12H17N204P (psilocybin), C12H16N20 (psilocin) |
| Molecular weight | 284.3 g/mol (psilocybin), 204.3 g/mol (psilocin) |
| Chemical tests | Marquis test (turns yellow), Mandelin reagent test (turns green) |
| Chemical detection sprays | Ehrlich's reagent, DMACA reagent |
| Chemical class | Hallucinogens, indolealkylamines or tryptamines, phenethylamines, cannabinoids |
| Effects | Euphoria, hallucinations, changes in perception, distorted sense of time, spiritual experiences, nausea, panic attacks, delayed headaches, flashbacks |
| Lethal dose | 2,000 to 6,000 mg (estimated for humans) |
| Therapeutic dose | 6 mg (effective dose), 10-30 mg (typical recreational dose) |
| Therapeutic index | 641 |
| Treatment potential | PTSD, depression, end-of-life care |
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What You'll Learn
Psilocybin and psilocin
Psilocybin, also known as 4-phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (4-PO-DMT), is a naturally occurring tryptamine alkaloid and investigational drug found in over 200 species of mushrooms. It is the key ingredient in magic mushrooms, which are hallucinogenic and have serotonergic effects. Psilocybin is a prodrug, meaning it is biologically inactive until it is converted by the body into psilocin. This conversion happens through dephosphorylation mediated via phosphatase enzymes.
The molecular structure of psilocybin mimics serotonin and binds tightly to serotonin receptors, especially 5-HT2A. When a chemical binds to these receptors, it can alter behaviour in mammals, insects, and arachnids. This has led to theories that psilocybin acts as a deterrent to predation or as a chemical defence against insects. However, psilocybin-containing mushrooms are often found with thriving insect larvae, and the infrequent occurrence of these mushrooms in the wild makes it unlikely that animals can easily recognize and avoid them.
Psilocybin is soluble in water, moderately soluble in methanol and ethanol, and insoluble in most organic solvents. The psilocybin content in mushrooms typically ranges from 0.5% to 1% of the dried weight, with psilocin present in smaller amounts, ranging from 0% to 0.59%. The most potent species of psilocybin-containing mushrooms are members of the genus Psilocybe, such as P. azurescens, P. semilanceata, and P. cyanescens. However, psilocybin has also been found in other genera, including Panaeolus, Inocybe, Pluteus, Gymnopilus, and Pholiotina.
The effects of ingesting psilocybin mushrooms include perceptual distortions, altered thinking and emotions, euphoria, changes in perception, a distorted sense of time, and perceived spiritual experiences. Adverse reactions such as nausea and panic attacks may also occur, and the effects can depend on an individual's mood, environment, and expectations. Psilocybin mushrooms have been used in Mexican and Central American cultures for religious, divinatory, or spiritual purposes and are now being explored for therapeutic benefits in treating conditions like PTSD and depression.
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Hallucinogenic effects
Psilocybin, also known as magic mushrooms, shrooms, or hallucinogenic mushrooms, is a naturally occurring psychedelic found in certain types of mushrooms. It is a tryptamine alkaloid and investigational drug found in more than 200 species of mushrooms, with hallucinogenic and serotonergic effects.
Psilocybin is the main psychoactive principle of hallucinogenic mushrooms. When psilocybin is taken, it is converted in the body to psilocin, which is the chemical with psychoactive properties. Psilocybin and psilocin are both indolealkylamines and structurally similar to the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT). Psilocin is the pharmacologically active form of psilocybin. It is a mixed receptor agonist and interacts mainly with 5-HT1A, 5-HT2A, and 5-HT2C receptor subtypes. Psilocybin and psilocin are present in varying amounts, with psilocybin typically making up around 0.5% to 1% of the dried weight of the mushroom and psilocin ranging from 0% to 0.59%.
The effects of psilocybin include euphoria, changes in perception, a distorted sense of time (via brain desynchronization), and perceived spiritual experiences. It can also cause adverse reactions such as nausea and panic attacks. The effects of psilocybin depend on set and setting, as well as one's expectations. The hallucinogenic effects of psilocybin are dose-dependent, with recreational doses typically ranging from 1.0 to 3.5-5.0 g of dried mushrooms and 10 to 50 g of fresh mushrooms. A "heroic dose" of dried mushrooms is considered to be 5.0 g.
The molecular structure of psilocybin mimics serotonin and binds tightly to serotonin receptors, especially 5-HT2A, which is a receptor that many psychedelic drugs bind to. When a chemical binds to these receptors, it can produce unnatural and altered behaviors. It has been proposed that this altered mental state may act as a direct deterrent to predation, or that psilocybin functions as a chemical defense against insects.
In addition to psilocybin and psilocin, hallucinogenic mushrooms may also contain other tryptamines such as baeocystin and norbaeocystin, which are thought to be less active. Certain mushrooms, such as those in the Psilocybe genus, also produce β-carbolines, which can inhibit the metabolism of psilocybin and potentiate its effects.
It is important to note that the main risk of taking magic mushrooms is the possibility of consuming poisonous mushrooms, as some poisonous varieties look very similar to psilocybin-containing mushrooms. Therefore, it is crucial to properly identify mushrooms before consumption to avoid potential health risks.
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Poisonous look-alikes
The main risk of consuming mushrooms is mistaking a poisonous mushroom for an edible one, as some varieties look very similar. Even experienced mushroom hunters can confuse the two. Here are some examples of poisonous mushrooms that look similar to edible varieties:
Death Cap (Amanita phalloides)
The death cap mushroom is perhaps the deadliest of all mushrooms, and is found throughout Europe. It closely resembles the edible straw mushroom and Caesar's mushroom. Its amatoxins are heat-stable, so cooking does not eliminate the poison. Violent abdominal pain, vomiting, and bloody diarrhoea are some of the symptoms that appear within 6 to 12 hours of consumption, followed by severe liver, kidney, and central nervous system involvement.
Destroying Angel (Amanita verna)
The destroying angel is a group of several species of all-white mushrooms in the Amanita genus. They are incredibly toxic and similar in appearance to edible button and meadow mushrooms. Amanita bisporigera, one of the destroying angel species, is considered the most toxic mushroom in North America. Initial symptoms include vomiting, delirium, convulsions, and diarrhoea, followed by liver and kidney failure, which often leads to death.
Fool's Webcap (Cortinarius orellanus)
The fool's webcap is one of the two species of poisonous webcap mushrooms, the other being the deadly webcap (Cortinarius rubellus). They resemble each other and several edible varieties. The poison in these mushrooms, orellanin, causes symptoms similar to the flu, but with an unusually long latency period of 2 days to 3 weeks, often leading to misdiagnosis. If left untreated, it causes kidney failure and death.
False Morel (Gyromitra spp.)
The false morel, or Gyromitra spp., is the poisonous look-alike of the edible Yellow Morel or Morchella americana. Some species of false morels contain a highly toxic and carcinogenic chemical called gyromitrin, which affects the central nervous system. While processing methods can rid the mushrooms of most of their gyromitrin, mistakes can lead to acute illness and even death.
Alcohol Inky Cap
The Alcohol Inky Cap is the poisonous look-alike of the Shaggy Mane mushroom. It gets its name because its toxic component, coprine, is highly reactive with alcohol. Consumption can cause extreme nausea, headaches, and other unpleasant symptoms, even days before or after drinking alcohol.
It is important to accurately identify mushrooms before consuming them. If you are not an experienced mushroom hunter, it is best to avoid consuming wild mushrooms or to seek expert advice.
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Therapeutic potential
Psilocybin, the key ingredient in magic mushrooms, is a naturally occurring tryptamine alkaloid with hallucinogenic and serotonergic effects. When psilocybin is ingested, it is converted by the body into psilocin, which is the chemical responsible for the psychoactive properties associated with magic mushrooms.
The therapeutic potential of psilocybin has been an active area of research, particularly in the context of mental health disorders. While current understanding of the neuropathophysiology of neuropsychiatric disorders remains limited, the modest success rates of existing antidepressant drugs, coupled with their side effects and loss of efficacy over time, have spurred interest in exploring alternative therapeutic agents.
Psilocybin has been studied as a possible treatment for various psychiatric disorders, including depression, substance use disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and cluster headaches. Research suggests that psilocybin may help regulate the brain's reward system in people with depression or suicidal ideation. A 2023 study found that adults who took a single 25-milligram dose of psilocybin with psychological support experienced a significant reduction in depressive symptoms compared to those who took a placebo. Another review from the same year indicated that psilocybin may have both short-term and long-term antidepressant effects.
In addition to its potential in treating depression, psilocybin is also being investigated for its therapeutic benefits in other areas of mental health. For example, psilocybin may help alleviate anxiety and post-traumatic stress, which are substantial challenges for global health systems due to their rising prevalence and lack of effective treatments.
While the therapeutic potential of psilocybin is promising, it is important to note that cultivation, possession, and use of psilocybin-containing mushrooms are heavily regulated and often illegal in many jurisdictions. However, some regions, like Amsterdam and certain U.S. states, have adopted less conservative approaches, recognizing the potential benefits of psilocybin and other psychedelic drugs when used safely and responsibly.
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Chemical synthesis
Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are a type of hallucinogenic mushroom. They contain the prodrug psilocybin, which turns into the psychedelic psilocin upon ingestion. Psilocybin is a naturally occurring tryptamine alkaloid and investigational drug found in more than 200 species of mushrooms. It is the key ingredient in magic mushrooms and is converted in the body to psilocin, which is the chemical with psychoactive properties.
Psilocybin and psilocin are both indolealkylamines and structurally similar to the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine or 5-HT). Psilocybin is soluble in water, moderately soluble in methanol and ethanol, and insoluble in most organic solvents. It is also known as 4-phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (4-PO-DMT).
Psilocybin content in mushrooms is typically around 0.5% to 1% of the dried weight, with a range of 0.03% to 1.78%. Psilocin is also present in the mushrooms, with a range of 0% to 0.59%, and can be on par with or significantly lower than psilocybin levels. The dosage of psilocybin-containing mushrooms depends on the psilocybin and psilocin content, which can vary significantly between and within the same species.
Recreational doses of psilocybin mushrooms are typically between 1.0 and 3.5–5.0 g of dried mushrooms and 10 to 50 g of fresh mushrooms. This corresponds to a dosage of psilocybin of about 10 to 50 mg. A 5.0 g dose of dried mushroom is often referred to as a "heroic dose".
Several methods have been developed for the laboratory synthesis and purification of psilocybin. In 2003, Shirota et al. reported a novel method for the synthesis of psilocybin at the gram scale from 4-hydroxyindole that does not require chromatographic purification. Sherwood et al. later improved upon this method by producing at the kilogram scale while using less expensive reagents. Other methods, such as enzymatic pathways for the synthesis of psilocybin and psilocin, have also been described.
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Frequently asked questions
The chemical released by magic mushrooms is called psilocybin, which is converted into psilocin in the body. Psilocybin is a naturally occurring psychedelic found in certain types of mushrooms.
Psilocybin is a hallucinogen that can affect all the senses, altering a person's thinking, sense of time, and emotions. It can cause euphoria, changes in perception, and spiritual experiences. It can also have adverse effects such as nausea and panic attacks.
The main risk is the possibility of consuming poisonous mushrooms, as some poisonous varieties look similar to magic mushrooms. Additionally, significantly elevated levels of psilocin can cause acute serotonin syndrome, and in rare cases, fatal events related to emotional distress and trip-induced psychosis have occurred due to overconsumption.
