Sarah Brown
Agaritine is a water-soluble hydrazine-derivative mycotoxin found in several species of mushrooms, including the commonly consumed white button mushroom. It is considered a potential carcinogen, particularly in mice, but the evidence for its toxicological effects in humans is inconclusive. Agaritine content in mushrooms can be reduced through various methods, including cooking, refrigeration, and freezing, which have been shown to decrease its concentration. While some studies suggest potential health risks associated with agaritine consumption, others highlight its antitumor activity and the nutritional benefits of mushrooms.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Description | Agaritine is a water-soluble, aromatic hydrazine-derivative mycotoxin found in mushrooms. |
| Occurrence | Agaritine occurs naturally in fresh mushrooms of at least 24 species of the genera Agaricus, Leucoagaricus, and Macrolepiota. |
| Extraction | It can be extracted from cultivated Agaricus bisporus mushrooms using water or methanol. |
| Synthesis | Total industrial syntheses of agaritine have been achieved, with an overall yield of 33%. |
| Toxicity | Agaritine is considered a toxin and a potential carcinogen, particularly in mice. However, there is inadequate evidence to classify it as carcinogenic to humans at typical consumption levels. |
| Anti-tumor Activity | Some studies have shown that agaritine from mushroom consumption has direct anti-tumor activity against leukemic cells. |
| Safe Consumption | Cooking mushrooms reduces agaritine content. Methods such as microwaving, boiling, frying, and freezing can decrease agaritine levels significantly. |
| Storage | Refrigeration and freezing can also reduce agaritine content in mushrooms. |
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What You'll Learn
Agaritine is a toxin found in many mushroom species
Agaritine has been described in some studies as a potential carcinogen, particularly in mouse models. However, the scientific validity of these studies has been questioned and contradicted by other research. For example, a mouse-based study concluded that if 10,000 people consumed a mushroom meal daily for 70 years, only one additional case of cancer could be attributed to mushroom consumption.
Furthermore, feeding studies using mushrooms and mushroom extracts have generally provided no evidence of toxicological effects of agaritine or mushroom consumption. A review funded by the mushroom industry concluded that "the available evidence to date suggests that agaritine from consumption of mushrooms poses no known toxicological risk to healthy humans."
The amount of agaritine in mushrooms can be reduced through various methods, including cooking and storage. Cooking methods such as frying, microwaving, boiling, and even freezing and thawing can lower agaritine levels. Storing mushrooms in the refrigerator or freezer can also significantly reduce agaritine content.
While the potential health risks of agaritine are still being studied, current evidence suggests that consuming mushrooms with agaritine does not pose a significant toxicological risk to humans.
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It is a hydrazine derivative and a mycotoxin
Agaritine is a naturally occurring phenylhydrazine derivative, or hydrazine derivative, found in wild and cultivated mushrooms of the genus Agaricus. It is also present in mushrooms of the genera Leucoagaricus and Macrolepiota. Agaritine is a mycotoxin, which means it is a toxic compound produced by fungi. It is a type of α-amino acid and a derivative of phenylhydrazine.
Agaritine is present in fresh samples of at least 24 species of mushrooms. The content varies between individual mushrooms and across species. The highest amount of agaritine is found in the cap and gills of the fruiting body, and the lowest in the stem. It can be extracted from cultivated mushrooms with water or methanol, and industrial syntheses of agaritine have been completed.
As a hydrazine derivative, agaritine has been described in some studies as a potential carcinogen, particularly in mice. However, the scientific validity of these studies has been questioned and contradicted by other research. For example, studies using rat models have generally not been able to reproduce toxicological or carcinogenic effects. Additionally, feeding studies in mice that used mushrooms and mushroom extracts containing agaritine did not provide evidence of toxicological effects, unlike studies that administered chemically synthesized hydrazine derivatives in non-physiologically relevant doses.
The available evidence suggests that agaritine from the consumption of cultivated A. bisporus mushrooms does not pose a known toxicological risk to healthy humans. However, there is a need for further research to fully understand agaritine's mechanisms of action and safe consumption levels.
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It is considered carcinogenic in mice
Agaritine is a naturally occurring phenylhydrazine derivative found in wild and cultivated mushrooms of the Agaricus species. It is considered a potential carcinogen, particularly in mice, with bladder implantation tests indicating that it may cause cancer in the bladder epithelium.
The carcinogenic effects of agaritine have been observed in mouse studies, where it has been linked to an increased risk of urinary bladder carcinoma. For example, a study by Andersson et al. (1999) found that the methanol extract of fresh Agaricus bisporus mushrooms and synthesized agaritine were significantly carcinogenic to the mouse bladder epithelium. The study detected agaritine in fresh Agaricus bisporus mushrooms at a level of 228.2 micrograms/wet weight, and the observed rate of mouse urinary bladder carcinoma was 30.8%.
However, it is important to note that the scientific validity of these findings has been questioned and contradicted by other studies. Some studies using the same mouse model have provided contradictory results, indicating that agaritine does not exhibit carcinogenic or toxicological effects. Furthermore, studies using rat models have also failed to reproduce toxicological effects.
While agaritine is considered a potential carcinogen in mice, the extrapolation of this data to human health outcomes is more complex. Some researchers argue that the available evidence suggests that agaritine consumption from mushrooms poses no known toxicological risk to healthy humans. For example, a review funded by the mushroom industry concluded that agaritine consumption does not present a health risk. Additionally, a study by Roupas et al. (2010) reached a similar conclusion, stating that agaritine consumption from cultivated Agaricus bisporus mushrooms is safe for humans.
The controversy surrounding the toxic status of agaritine highlights the need for further research to establish its mechanisms of action and safe consumption levels in humans.
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There is no evidence of toxicological effects in humans
Agaritine is a naturally occurring amino acid and derivative of phenylhydrazine found in mushrooms of the genus Agaricus. It is also present in fresh samples of at least 24 species of the genera Leucoagaricus and Macrolepiota. Agaritine is a water-soluble toxin closely related to gyromitrin, another toxin found in mushrooms.
While agaritine has been recognised as an experimental carcinogen when used in high laboratory doses on mice, there is insufficient evidence to classify it as carcinogenic to humans in the amounts ingested from consuming mushrooms.
Some studies have found no evidence of toxicological effects in humans. For example, Roupas et al. (2010) concluded that agaritine from the consumption of cultivated A. bisporus mushrooms poses no known toxicological risk to healthy humans. Barbisan et al. (2003) found that crude extracts of A. blazei Murrill significantly reduced DNA damage in the liver induced by diethylnitrosamine in adult male Wistar rats. Endo et al. (2010) reported the anti-tumour activity of agaritine from mushrooms against leukaemic cells.
However, it is important to note that agaritine has been identified as a potential carcinogen, particularly when mushrooms are consumed raw or undercooked. Cooking mushrooms, such as frying, microwaving, or boiling, can reduce agaritine levels. Therefore, it is recommended to cook mushrooms before consumption to minimise any potential risks associated with agaritine.
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Agaritine content can be reduced by cooking or storing mushrooms
Agaritine is a natural mycotoxin found in fresh samples of at least 24 species of the genera Agaricus, Leucoagaricus, and Macrolepiota. It is an α-amino acid and a derivative of phenylhydrazine. Agaritine is present in mushrooms of these species worldwide. Agaricus bisporus, also known as the common button mushroom, is cultivated in over 70 countries on every continent except Antarctica.
Agaritine occurs naturally in mushrooms and can be extracted with water or methanol. While it is recognized as an experimental carcinogen when used in high laboratory doses, there is insufficient evidence to classify agaritine as carcinogenic to humans in the amounts present in mushrooms.
Drying mushrooms is another effective way to reduce agaritine content. A pronounced reduction in agaritine content was observed during the refrigerator or freezer storage of mushrooms, as well as during drying. The degree of reduction depends on the length and condition of storage and is typically between 20-75%. However, no reduction in agaritine content was observed during freeze-drying.
While agaritine has been detected in fresh and dried mushrooms, it was not detected in canned Agaricus bisporus mushrooms, suggesting that the canning process may also effectively reduce agaritine content.
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Frequently asked questions
Agaritine is a water-soluble hydrazinic toxin and aromatic hydrazine-derivative mycotoxin found in many mushroom species.
Agaritine is considered a potential carcinogen, particularly in mice. However, there is inadequate evidence to classify it as carcinogenic to humans in amounts ingested from consuming mushrooms.
Agaritine can be removed from mushrooms by cooking, particularly by frying, microwaving, or boiling. It can also be removed through storage in the refrigerator or freezer, as well as by ethanol fractionation.
Agaritine is present in fresh samples of at least 24 species of the genera Agaricus, Leucoagaricus, and Macrolepiota. This includes common button mushrooms, Shiitake mushrooms, and Agaricus bisporus mushrooms.
Some studies have suggested that agaritine may have anti-tumor activity against leukemic cells. Additionally, Agaricus blazei Murill (ABM), which contains agaritine, has been used to prevent and cure various diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and hypertension.
