Emily Johnson
Mushrooms, the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting bodies of fungi, have been consumed and held cultural significance for centuries. The earliest fossil evidence of mushroom-forming fungi dates back to the mid-Cretaceous, around 90 million years ago. Fungi are believed to have diverged from other life forms approximately 1.5 billion years ago, with the colonization of land occurring during the Cambrian period over 500 million years ago. The terms mushroom and toadstool have been used interchangeably for centuries, with the former possibly derived from the French word mousseron, referring to moss. Mushrooms have been consumed and cultivated in various parts of the world, with archaeological evidence suggesting their spiritual use as early as 10,000 BCE. Today, the most common grocery mushrooms in the US belong to the species Agaricus bisporus, including white, brown, button, cremini, and portobello mushrooms. Additionally, the discovery of psilocybin-containing mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms, has led to their recreational and therapeutic use, with ongoing research exploring their potential benefits in mental health treatment.
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What You'll Learn
The evolution of fungi
Fungi likely colonized the land during the Cambrian, over 500 million years ago, and possibly even earlier during the Ediacaran, around 635 million years ago. The earliest terrestrial fungus fossils have been discovered in South China and date back to this period. These ancient fungi may have contributed to oxygenating the Earth's atmosphere following the Cryogenian glaciations.
During the Paleozoic Era (542-251 million years ago), fungi were predominantly aquatic and resembled extant Chytrids, possessing flagellum-bearing spores. However, the majority of modern fungal species lack a flagellum, indicating that this feature was lost early in their evolutionary history. The transition from an aquatic to a terrestrial lifestyle led to the diversification of ecological strategies, including parasitism, saprobism, and the formation of mutualistic relationships.
Fungal fossils become more common during the Devonian period (419.2-358.9 million years ago), with Prototaxites being the most common and likely the tallest organism of the late Silurian. By the early Devonian, Zygomycota and Chytridiomycota were abundant, and Ascomycota and Basidiomycota diverged, leading to the presence of all modern classes of fungi by the Late Carboniferous.
The Permian-Triassic extinction event (251.4 million years ago) provided an opportunity for fungi to flourish, as evidenced by a significant increase in fungal spores. Fungi may have even been the dominant life form during this period, taking advantage of the extinction of many plant and animal species.
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Ancient use of mushrooms
The ancient use of mushrooms, particularly psilocybin mushrooms, was deeply rooted in spiritual and healing practices. One of the earliest and most documented uses of psilocybin mushrooms can be traced back to Mesoamerican cultures, such as the Aztecs and the Maya. The Aztecs referred to these mushrooms as "teonanácatl", translating to "flesh of the gods", and they played an integral role in religious ceremonies and rituals, believed to facilitate communication with deities and the spirit world. Spanish conquistadors, led by Hernán Cortés in the early 16th century, observed and documented these practices, attempting to destroy all records and evidence of mushroom usage. However, a 16th-century Spanish Franciscan friar and historian mentioned teonanacatl in his writings, sparking a decades-long search for its identity.
The ancient Mazatec people of Oaxaca, Mexico, are also known for their traditional use of psilocybin mushrooms in healing ceremonies. Maria Sabina, a Mazatec healer, introduced these mushrooms to the Western world in the 1950s through her rituals, which were documented by R. Gordon Wasson, an amateur mycologist. Valentina Pavlovna Wasson, R. Gordon Wasson's wife, also participated in indigenous mushroom ceremonies and helped publicize their experiences.
In ancient times, mushrooms were recognised as powerful medicines by various cultures. Ötzi, the Ice Man, who lived nearly 5300 years ago, carried amadou and birch polypore mushrooms, utilising them for survival in the Alps of northern Italy. The ancient Greeks also recognised the medicinal properties of mushrooms, with the physician Hippocrates classifying the amadou mushroom as a potent anti-inflammatory and wound-healing agent. Chinese alchemist Tao Hongjing, from the 5th century, described several medicinal mushrooms, including ling zhi (Ganoderma lucidum) and zhu ling (Dendropolyporus umbellatus).
The ancient use of mushrooms extended beyond medicinal purposes and was also associated with ritual and community. Traditional ceremonies provided controlled and supportive environments, helping participants navigate their psychedelic experiences and facilitating spiritual growth. This understanding of "set and setting" is now recognised as crucial in modern therapeutic settings, emphasising the importance of mindset and physical environment in psychedelic-assisted therapies.
Additionally, psilocybin mushrooms may have been depicted in Stone Age rock art in Africa and Europe, and they are certainly represented in pre-Columbian sculptures and glyphs throughout the Americas. The ancient diffusion of mushrooms, specifically psilocybin-containing varieties, spanned various continents, including North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia.
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Identifying mushrooms
The terms "mushroom" and "toadstool" date back centuries, with the former believed to have originated from the French word "mousseron", referring to moss. While the standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, the term encompasses various gilled fungi, with or without stems. The diffusion of mushrooms, or their evolution, dates back to ancient times, with fungi diverging from other life forms around 1.5 billion years ago.
Gills or False Gills
Examine the underside of the cap for the presence of gills, which are lamellae or ridges. Some mushrooms, like chanterelles, have false gills, which are wrinkled folds instead of gills.
Cap and Stem
Observe the shape, colour, and structure of the cap and stem. For example, the caps of chanterelles are slightly vase-shaped, and the stems have no bulb or ring and are not hollow.
Habitat
Note the location and surroundings where the mushroom was found. For instance, chanterelles are typically found on the ground at the edge of trails in mixed hardwood forests.
Smell, Taste, and Bruising Reactions
Some mushrooms have distinct smells or tastes, which can aid in identification. Additionally, the presence of juices, bruising reactions, and colour changes upon breaking or handling can be indicative of certain mushroom species.
Spore Prints
The colour of the spore print, formed by placing the gill-side of the cap onto a surface overnight, is a crucial identifying factor. Common spore print colours include white, brown, black, purple-brown, pink, yellow, and creamy shades.
Microscopic Characteristics
Sometimes, identifying mushrooms requires examining microscopic features, such as basidiospores, which are produced on the gills and fall as a fine powder.
Remember, mushroom identification can be challenging, and it is essential to never consume a mushroom based solely on written or online descriptions. Always refer to reliable field guides or seek expert advice for accurate identification.
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Farming and foraging
Mushroom farming and foraging have a long and fascinating history. The practice of cultivating mushrooms for food is thought to have started in ancient China over 1,000 years ago, with the farming of shiitake mushrooms. However, it is believed that the practice may have begun even earlier, possibly as early as 600 AD. During the 17th century, mushroom cultivation became popular in France and spread to other parts of Europe. French gardeners were among the first to cultivate mushrooms in caves, providing the perfect environment for their growth. This method became the standard across Europe until the mid-19th century.
In the United States, mushroom farming gained popularity in the early 20th century, with the first commercial farm established in 1896 in Pennsylvania. However, it was the knowledge and expertise brought by European immigrants in the 1920s that truly propelled mushroom farming in the U.S. The development of the American spawn industry in the early 20th century improved the quality and availability of spawn, a crucial material for mushroom growth. The invention of synthetic compost and climate-controlled growing environments in the mid-20th century revolutionized the industry, enabling year-round cultivation and significantly boosting production.
Today, mushroom farming is a dynamic global industry, with continuous innovations being explored, such as robotics and artificial intelligence. Oyster mushroom farming, in particular, is expanding worldwide due to its sustainability and the ability to use diverse natural resources as a substrate, including used coffee grounds.
Foraging for mushrooms is a popular activity in many parts of the world, especially in forested areas of Eurasia, Australia, and temperate regions of North America. It is a tradition in Russia, Lithuania, and Slavic and Baltic countries, where families venture into forests after heavy rain to collect mushrooms for culinary delights. Mushroom hunting is also common in the Appalachian area, the west coast of the U.S., Japan, and the British Isles, where enthusiasts enjoy an extended average picking season compared to the 1950s.
The activity of mushroom foraging involves researching and exploring forested areas, often requiring trial and error to find the best grounds. Safety precautions are essential, including carrying a physical topographical map, downloading a GPS app, and notifying a friend or relative of your plans. Online communities and mycology clubs are valuable resources for beginners, offering guidance and expertise in mushroom identification. Identification books, pocket guides, and social media groups also assist foragers in distinguishing between edible and poisonous mushrooms. Foraging for mushrooms not only provides health benefits from consuming nutrient-rich fungi but also encourages quality outdoor time and connection with nature.
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Magic mushrooms
Mushrooms are the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting bodies of fungi, typically produced above ground on soil or another food source. The term "toadstool" generally refers to a poisonous mushroom. The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus. The terms "mushroom" and "toadstool" go back centuries and were never precisely defined, nor was there a consensus on their application.
Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are a type of hallucinogenic mushroom and a polyphyletic informal group of fungi that contain the prodrug psilocybin, which turns into the psychedelic psilocin upon ingestion. The most potent species are members of the genus Psilocybe, such as P. azurescens, P. semilanceata, and P. cyanescens. However, psilocybin has also been isolated from approximately a dozen other genera, including Panaeolus, Inocybe, Pluteus, Gymnopilus, and Pholiotina.
In the 20th century, R. Gordon Wasson, who established and named ethnomycology (the study of the role of mushrooms in human cultures), hypothesized that some peoples are mycophobic or mushroom-fearing because mushrooms were once important ritual intoxicants. Wasson and his wife, Valentina Pavlovna Wasson, became the first known European Americans to actively participate in an indigenous mushroom ceremony in 1955. They publicized their experience, and in 1958, Albert Hofmann first identified psilocybin and psilocin as the active compounds in these mushrooms.
Today, psilocybin-containing mushrooms and products are available for purchase in some jurisdictions, and they are used as recreational drugs. However, it is important to note that the effects of magic mushrooms can vary from genus to genus and species to species, and they may produce different effects in their pure form compared to when they are consumed as mushrooms.
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Frequently asked questions
The earliest known mushroom-forming fungi, Archaeomarasmius legletti, appeared during the mid-Cretaceous, 90 million years ago. Fungi probably colonized the land during the Cambrian, over 500 million years ago, and possibly 635 million years ago during the Ediacaran.
Mushrooms have probably been foraged since prehistoric times. According to Cynthia D. Bertelsen, in her book "Mushroom: A Global History", shiitakes (Lentinula edodes) were likely cultivated in China and Japan as early as 600 CE. Archaeological evidence of mushrooms used spiritually dates back to as early as 10,000 BCE.
Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms, have been used in indigenous cultures of Mesoamerica for centuries. They gained popularity in the 1950s when Valentina Pavlovna Wasson and R. Gordon Wasson became the first known European Americans to participate in an indigenous mushroom ceremony. In the 1960s and 1970s, magic mushrooms became a psychedelic staple, with Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert starting the Harvard Psilocybin Project to promote psychological and religious studies of psilocybin and other psychedelic drugs.
