Emma Wilson
Mushrooms are a type of fungus that has been used by humans for food, medicine, and spiritual purposes for centuries. There are approximately 14,000 species of mushrooms, and they can be found in a variety of ecosystems around the world, including grasslands, forests, and even urban areas. While some mushrooms are cultivated, others grow wild and are foraged or hunted. The identification of mushrooms is a complex process that requires knowledge of their macroscopic and microscopic structures, as well as their ecological roles and potential benefits and dangers to human health. Indigenous peoples in California, Canada, Mexico, Uganda, and Brazil, among other places, have long-standing traditions and practices associated with mushrooms, including sustainable methods for their cultivation and use in medicine and food.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Indigenous practices for cultivation of wild saprophytic mushrooms | Agroecology, agricultural biodiversity, environment conservation, community economic resilience, population health, socioeconomic transformation |
| Indigenous knowledge about mushrooms | Knowledge of nutrition requirements for mushroom growth and fruiting, knowledge of substrates that can be sourced at a low price within local regions |
| Indigenous groups that use mushrooms | Teso people of Eastern Uganda, California Indian tribes, Native Americans, Yupik of Alaska, Coastal Alaskan peoples, Yukon Indians, Tlingit, Haida, Tsiamsham, Salish |
| Types of mushrooms used by indigenous groups | Haploporus odorus, Phellinus igniarius, Agaricus bisporus, obunegyere mushrooms |
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What You'll Learn
Indigenous North American use of mushrooms
The use of fungi by Native Americans of North America is an intriguing but less discussed topic. One example is Haploporus odorus, a polypore fungus found above 52 degrees latitude in Canada and Northwestern Europe. Native Americans used H. odorus as a spiritual symbol, a decoration of sacred objects, and a healing tool. The fungus was used to stop wounds from bleeding, made into an infusion to treat diarrhoea and dysentery, and combined with another fungus in an infusion to treat coughs. It was burned to produce healing perfumed smoke, and some elders wore necklaces of pieces of the fungus strung on a leather thong as protection against becoming ill. The Native Americans also used H. odorus as an adornment on sacred war robes and scalp necklaces.
Another interesting fungus is Phellinus igniarius, a polypore that grows on birch trees in the interior of northern North America. Native American use of this fungus has been recorded since the 19th century. Coastal Alaskan peoples traded with the Yukon Indians of the interior to obtain it. The Yupik and Dena peoples of the far northwest kept the ashes of P. igniarius in small, beautifully decorated boxes. The boxes were made of ivory, wood, or bone, and then decorated with materials like strips of antler, polished walrus teeth, and tufts of seal hair. The Yupik of Alaska used the fungus as a masticatory and for smoking purposes. Before the introduction of tobacco by Europeans, the Yupik mixed the burnt fungus ashes with other plant materials, such as cottonwood bark, and smoked or made a quid out of this mixture.
While there is some suggestion of mushrooms being used as psychedelics in Siberia, there is no clear evidence of their medicinal or spiritual use by Native Americans. Some groups in the Pacific Northwest, such as the Haida, Tlingit, Tsiamsham, and Salish, have a strong shamanic tradition and much of their traditional art could be characterised as "visionary". However, they have not admitted knowledge of the use of psychoactive mushrooms like Amanita or Psilocybe to ethnographers. While mushrooms may have been a food source in this region, they do not appear to have been used for mystical purposes.
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Indigenous Californian use of mushrooms
Mushrooms are indigenous to many parts of the world, including North America. Many California Indian tribes have utilized mushrooms for food, medicine, and technology. The California Indians' knowledge of fungi harvesting and burning to enhance mushroom populations and habitats is extensive and complex. They have special areas that they repeatedly visit to gather mushrooms, and some even have family plots to harvest certain types regularly.
The California Indians' use of mushrooms varies from food to medicine and technology. They dry, store, and prepare mushrooms in various ways, and their harvesting techniques and burning practices have influenced the abundance, density, diversity, and habitat quality of mushrooms in the region.
The indigenous people of California have a deep understanding of the ecological roles of mushrooms in different ecosystems. Their knowledge and practices have led to the perpetuation of usable mushrooms and the potential ecological effects of burning on forests. The indigenous burning practices of several tribes in the lower montane mixed conifer forests of the central and southern Sierra Nevada and the mixed evergreen forests of northern California are especially notable.
While there is limited information on the spiritual use of mushrooms by Native Americans in California, some tribes in North America considered mushrooms sacred. For example, the Indians used H. odorus as a spiritual symbol, a decoration on sacred objects, and a healing tool. The Yupik and Dena peoples of the far northwest kept the ashes of P. igniarius, another type of fungus, in beautifully decorated boxes.
In contrast, some Native American tribes in the Pacific Northwest, such as the Haida, Tlingit, Tsiamsham, and Salish, have not admitted knowledge of using psychoactive mushrooms like Amanita or Psilocybe mushrooms to ethnographers, despite possessing a strong shamanic tradition.
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Indigenous Ugandan use of mushrooms
Mushrooms are fungi that typically have a stem, a cap, and gills on the underside of the cap. They produce microscopic spores, which help the fungus spread across the surface. There are approximately 14,000 species of mushrooms, and they have been used by various cultures for food, tinder, medicine, and spiritual purposes.
In Uganda, mushrooms have become an important crop for improving livelihoods, especially in rural areas and for vulnerable communities. Ugandan communities have traditionally relied on staple crops like beans, potatoes, and sorghum, which take months to mature and yield low returns. Oyster mushrooms, in particular, have emerged as a sustainable alternative in Uganda's Rukiga district, offering a reliable income stream for farmers. The International Crane Foundation has supported local farming groups in piloting projects that promote mushroom farming as an alternative to harvesting resources from nearby wetlands, which are crucial breeding grounds for cranes.
Mushroom farming in Uganda has low startup costs, and the short turnaround time for harvests has made it a lucrative option for income generation. The crops are also nutritious and versatile, fitting well into Ugandan dishes like katogo as a protein substitute, helping families save on meat costs. Josephine Nakakande, the founder of Eco-Agaric Uganda, is a prominent figure in this movement, empowering thousands of women to become mushroom farmers and improve their economic situation.
Beyond the financial benefits, mushroom cultivation in Uganda has had a positive environmental impact. By providing an alternative income source that doesn't rely on wetland resources, mushroom farming has helped reduce encroachment on these ecosystems. This, in turn, has contributed to the preservation of habitats for species like the Grey Crowned Crane, supporting biodiversity and water regulation.
Additionally, mushroom growing has been adopted by organizations like the Window of Life Babies Home, an orphanage in Masindi, Uganda, to generate income and support the care and education of abandoned, neglected, or abused children. Through initiatives like the Ugandan Mushroom Project, the orphanage has received training and support to cultivate mushrooms and sell any excess produce in the market to boost their income.
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Indigenous Brazilian use of mushrooms
Mushrooms are indigenous to many parts of the world, including North America, Canada, Europe, and Mexico.
In Brazil, the indigenous people from the Amazon region recognize fungi and differentiate them from plants and animals, sometimes designating them as food or medicine. The Waikás (Yanomami ethnic group) were the only community observed using fungi as part of their diet, but the Sanöma group (also Yanomami) recognized and ate many mushrooms. In 1974, Oswaldo Fidalgo and G.T. Prance recorded 21 species of wild edible mushrooms (WEM) consumed by this Yanomami group, most of them collected from cassava plantations. The Sanöma relied on caterpillars, larvae, and fungi to provide protein in their diet.
Another ethnomycological study from Brazil was carried out with the Caiabi, Txicão, and Txucarramãe groups in the Xingu Indigenous Park in the southern part of the Brazilian Amazon Forest. In this study, 26 indigenous mycological terms were mentioned and discussed. According to Vargas-Isla et al., Auricularia, Favolus, Lentinula, Lentinus, Panus, and Pleurotus are the genera with edible species most reported by the indigenous and traditional groups of the Amazon region.
In Brazil, there are approximately 133 wild mushroom species safe for human consumption. Some can be sustainably cultivated using substrates derived from agricultural and urban waste, offering high-protein, high-fiber, low-fat foods with bioactive compounds holding antioxidant and prebiotic potential. Mushroom cultivation is rapidly expanding in Brazil because Brazilians have discovered the medicinal and culinary value of mushrooms.
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Indigenous Alaskan use of mushrooms
Mushrooms are indigenous to many parts of the world, including North America. The use of mushrooms by indigenous peoples in Alaska has been recorded since the 19th century.
The Yupik and Dena peoples of Alaska's far northwest have traditionally used the fungus Phellinus igniarius for smoking and chewing purposes. This fungus grows on birch trees in the interior of northern North America. The Yupik people traded with the Yukon Indians to obtain it. They would mix the burnt fungus ashes with other plant materials, such as cottonwood bark, and smoke or chew the mixture. After the introduction of tobacco by Europeans, they began mixing the ashes with tobacco to give it a "kick". Today, this ash-tobacco mixture is sold in native Alaskan communities under the name iqmik.
The Tlingit people of the Pacific Northwest also included mushrooms in their diet, alongside seafood, wild game, and plants.
Indigenous Alaskans have also used mushrooms for medicinal and spiritual purposes. Haploporus odorus, a fungus found above 52 degrees latitude in Canada and Northwestern Europe, was used by the Northern Plains Indians as a spiritual symbol, a decoration on sacred objects, and a healing tool. It was used to stop wounds from bleeding, treat diarrhea and dysentery, and cure coughs when combined with another fungus. It was also burned to produce healing perfumed smoke, and some elders wore necklaces of pieces of the fungus to protect against illness.
Alaska's diverse ecosystems, including boreal forests, tundra, and coastal rainforests, provide a variety of habitats for mushroom growth. Many species of mushrooms in Alaska are edible, such as the King Bolete, which can be found in Alaska's forests from July to September. However, some species are toxic and can cause symptoms like nausea, vomiting, and liver failure. For this reason, it is important to follow responsible foraging practices and regulations when hunting for mushrooms in Alaska, and all harvested mushrooms should be cooked before consumption.
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Frequently asked questions
Mushrooms are indigenous to many parts of the world. Some common types include:
- Agaricus bisporus: native to grasslands in Europe and North America
- Cantharellus cibarius (the chanterelle): found in Asia, Europe, North America, and Australia
- Haploporus odorus: found above 52 degrees latitude in Canada and Northwestern Europe
- Phellinus igniarius: grows on birch trees in the interior of northern North America
- Obunegyere mushrooms: found in grassland agricultural areas, particularly in association with termites
The use of mushrooms by indigenous peoples varies across cultures. Some examples include:
- The Indians of North America used Haploporus odorus as a spiritual symbol, a decoration, and a healing tool
- The Yupik and Dena peoples of Alaska kept the ashes of Phellinus igniarius, which grows on birch trees in northern North America, in decorated boxes and used them for smoking and masticatory purposes
- California Indian tribes utilized mushrooms for food, medicine, and technological purposes, and employed burning practices to enhance mushroom populations and habitats
Indigenous peoples have developed various methods for cultivating mushrooms, often in ways that are environmentally sustainable and economically feasible. For example:
- The Teso people of Eastern Uganda have traditional knowledge of edible and medicinal mushrooms
- The Pit River tribe (Ajumawi band) of northeastern California had family plots for harvesting certain types of mushrooms
- California Indian tribes employed burning practices to enhance mushroom populations and habitats
One challenge faced by indigenous communities is the increasing curtailment of access to natural resources due to conflicting policies, regulations, and development programs that do not align with traditional systems of resource management and conservation. Additionally, traditional farming communities may find that their methods for cultivating wild saprophytic mushrooms are insufficient to ensure local food security and economic resilience in the global economy.
