John Miller
Psilocybin mushrooms, also known as magic mushrooms, are hallucinogenic fungi that have been consumed by humans for thousands of years. Evidence of their use has been found in ancient cave paintings in Africa and Europe, and they have held cultural significance for Indigenous peoples in the Americas. In the 20th century, psilocybin mushrooms gained popularity in the United States and became the subject of scientific study, with Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann identifying the psychoactive compounds psilocybin and psilocin. Today, these compounds are being explored for their therapeutic potential in mental health treatment.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Common Names | Magic Mushrooms, Shrooms |
| Active Compounds | Psilocybin, Psilocin, Norpsilocin, Baeocystin, Norbaeocystin, Aeruginascin |
| Origin | Mexico, Central America, South America, North America |
| History of Use | Spiritual and Divinatory Ceremonies, Religious Ceremonies, Rituals, Medical Treatment and Diagnosis |
| Scientific Discovery | 1958, by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann |
| Number of Species | Over 180 documented species, with more being discovered |
| Genera | Psilocybe, Gymnopilus, Panaeolus, Copelandia, Pluteus, Inocybe, Pholiotina, Galerina, Hygrophorus, Cyclocybe |
| Potency | Varies depending on species, strain, growth, drying conditions, and mushroom size |
| Effects | Euphoria, Changes in Perception, Distorted Sense of Time, Spiritual Experiences, Nausea, Panic Attacks |
| Legal Status | Outlawed in most countries, classified as a Schedule I substance |
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What You'll Learn
Prehistoric use in Africa and Europe
Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are a type of hallucinogenic mushroom that contains the prodrug psilocybin, which turns into the psychedelic psilocin upon ingestion. Psilocybin mushrooms occur on all continents, with the majority of species found in subtropical humid forests. They are generally dark-spored, gilled mushrooms that grow in meadows and woods in the subtropics and tropics, usually in soils rich in humus and plant debris.
The prehistoric use of psilocybin mushrooms in Africa and Europe is a subject of debate among scholars. Some researchers argue that the use of these mushrooms may have influenced the creation of prehistoric rock art found in both continents. Stone Age rock art in Africa and Europe may depict psilocybin mushrooms, suggesting their cultural significance in prehistoric times. However, others challenge this idea, claiming that the specific compounds required to induce hallucinations were not available to these prehistoric cultures.
The distribution of psilocybin mushrooms supports their prehistoric presence in Africa and Europe. Endemic species are found in both continents, and the long-distance dispersal of spores could have contributed to their widespread occurrence. In Europe, the first reliably documented report of intoxication with Psilocybe semilanceata, the most common psychedelic mushroom on the continent, involved a British family in 1799 who prepared a meal with mushrooms they had picked in London's Green Park.
In Africa, the presence of psilocybin mushrooms is also suggested by their inclusion in Stone Age rock art. Additionally, two new Psilocybe species, P. ingeli and P. maluti, were described in southern Africa in 2024, adding to the diversity of psilocybin mushrooms on the continent.
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Indigenous use in the Americas
Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are hallucinogenic mushrooms that contain the prodrug psilocybin, which turns into the psychedelic psilocin upon ingestion. The use of psilocybin mushrooms has a long history in the Americas, particularly in Mesoamerica and among Indigenous communities.
Indigenous communities in the Americas have a long history of using psilocybin mushrooms for religious, spiritual, and shamanic practices. These mushrooms have been consumed in various regions, including Mexico, Central America, and South America, as part of cultural traditions and rituals.
In Mexico, the use of psilocybin mushrooms has a deep-rooted history among Indigenous groups. Despite Spanish colonial prohibition, the use of these mushrooms continued among different Indigenous communities. In the 1930s, Richard Evans Schultes, a Harvard botanist, studied shamanistic mushroom use by Indians in the state of Oaxaca, Mexico. Valentina and R. Gordon Wasson, in 1955, became the first known European Americans to participate in an indigenous mushroom ceremony. They publicized their experience, which inspired Timothy Leary to travel to Mexico and later start the Harvard Psilocybin Project to study the psychological and religious effects of psilocybin.
In Central America, psilocybin mushrooms have been used by Indigenous peoples for thousands of years. One notable example is the use of Psilocybe mexicana, a species native to North and Central America.
In South America, the Aztec Indians referred to psilocybin mushrooms as "teonanacatl," meaning "god's flesh." These mushrooms were used in religious and healing rituals, showcasing the sacred nature of these fungi in Indigenous cultures.
The use of psilocybin mushrooms by Indigenous communities in the Americas has had a significant impact on modern medicine and scientific research. Clinical trials and studies have indicated the potential therapeutic benefits of psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy in treating mental health disorders, such as depression, anxiety, and addiction. However, it is important to acknowledge the cultural roots of these practices and collaborate with Indigenous communities to ensure culturally sensitive and respectful use of psilocybin in medicine.
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Modern medical applications
Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are hallucinogenic mushrooms that contain the prodrug psilocybin, which turns into the psychedelic psilocin upon ingestion. Psilocybin mushrooms have been used by various indigenous cultures for thousands of years for religious, spiritual, and shamanic practices. They may also be depicted in Stone Age rock art in Africa and Europe, but they are more certainly represented in pre-Columbian sculptures and glyphs seen throughout the Americas.
In the early 20th century, psilocybin became an intriguing new topic of study among medical professionals in psychiatry. However, in the mid-20th century, psilocybin was classified as a Schedule I substance, bringing a halt to research on its medicinal utility. In recent years, there has been a resurgence of clinical trials involving psilocybin, and it is now poised to make a significant impact on treatments available in psychiatric medicine.
Psilocybin-assisted therapy has shown promising results in the treatment of addiction, depression, anxiety, and end-of-life mood disorders. For example, a small study of adults with major depression found that two doses of psilocybin, given with supportive psychotherapy, produced rapid and large reductions in depressive symptoms, with half of the participants achieving remission through the four-week follow-up. Additionally, research has shown that psilocybin can help reduce anxiety in some cancer patients and facilitate smoking cessation.
The molecular structure of psilocybin allows it to penetrate the central nervous system, and researchers are just beginning to understand its effects on the brain and its potential as a therapeutic for mental illnesses. Psilocybin appears to alter the entire brain for a period of time, providing relief from negative emotions. Brain scans after psilocybin use have shown decreased activity in the claustrum, the area of the brain believed to be responsible for setting attention and switching tasks. This ties in with the typical effects of psychedelic drugs, including feelings of being connected to everything and reduced senses of self or ego.
While psilocybin does not lead to physical dependence, it can cause adverse reactions such as nausea, panic attacks, and increased heart rate, especially in those with heart conditions. Therefore, it should be used in regulated spaces facilitated by a medical team to ensure safety. Further research is needed to determine the optimal methods for utilizing psilocybin mushrooms and their active ingredient, psilocybin, in medicine.
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Varied psilocybin content
Psilocybin mushrooms, also known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are a polyphyletic informal group of fungi that contain the prodrug psilocybin, which turns into the psychedelic psilocin upon ingestion. Psilocybin is a naturally occurring tryptamine alkaloid and investigational drug found in more than 200 species of mushrooms, with hallucinogenic and serotonergic effects.
The psilocybin content of mushrooms varies greatly, ranging from almost nothing to 2.5% of the dry weight. The variation depends on the species, strain, growth and drying conditions, and mushroom size. Younger, smaller mushrooms tend to have a higher concentration of the drug than larger, more mature mushrooms. Cultivated mushrooms have less variability in psilocybin content than wild mushrooms. The drug is also more stable in dried than fresh mushrooms, retaining their potency for months or even years.
Psilocybin-containing mushrooms vary in their psilocybin and psilocin content, but are typically around 1% of the dried weight of the mushrooms. Psilocybe cubensis, for example, grows naturally in tropical and subtropical conditions, often near cattle due to the ideal conditions they provide for the growth of the fungus. P. semilanceata is considered the world's most widely distributed psilocybin mushroom, found in temperate parts of Europe, North America, Asia, South America, Australia, and New Zealand.
In addition to psilocybin and psilocin, other compounds such as norpsilocin, baeocystin, norbaeocystin, and aeruginascin may also be present in psilocybin mushrooms, potentially resulting in an entourage effect that modifies the effects of the mushrooms. Panaeolus subbalteatus, one species of magic mushroom, had the highest amount of psilocybin compared to the rest of the fruiting body.
The use of psilocybin mushrooms has a rich history, with evidence suggesting that human consumption of these fungi predates recorded history. Indigenous communities have used psilocybin mushrooms for generations, employing them in religious, spiritual, and shamanic practices.
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Legal status
Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are hallucinogenic mushrooms that contain the prodrug psilocybin, which turns into the psychedelic psilocin upon ingestion. Psilocybin mushrooms are used as recreational drugs and are depicted in Stone Age rock art in Africa and Europe. They are also represented in pre-Columbian sculptures and glyphs seen throughout the Americas.
The legal status of psilocybin mushrooms varies by country and region. Here is an overview of the legal status of psilocybin mushrooms in different parts of the world:
United States
In the United States, psilocybin mushrooms are considered a Schedule I controlled substance under the Controlled Substances Act, meaning they have a high potential for abuse and no currently accepted medical use. Possession, cultivation, and distribution of psilocybin mushrooms are illegal at the federal level. However, some states have introduced legislation to decriminalize or legalize the use of psilocybin for therapeutic purposes. For example, Oregon has passed legislation that will allow adults over the age of 21 to access psilocybin through licensed facilitators.
Canada
In Canada, psilocybin is also a controlled substance and is listed in Schedule III of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act. However, there is a special access policy that allows doctors to request access to psilocybin for their patients on a case-by-case basis.
Europe
The legal status of psilocybin mushrooms varies across European countries. In the Netherlands, psilocybin mushrooms were outlawed in 2008, but they are still widely available and tolerated in small quantities. In the United Kingdom, psilocybin mushrooms are classified as a Class A drug, making it illegal to possess, sell, or distribute them without a license. However, expert groups in the UK have ranked psilocybin mushrooms as the illicit drug with the lowest harm compared to other recreational drugs.
Mexico and Central America
In Mexico and Central America, psilocybin mushrooms have a long history of use in indigenous cultures and religious ceremonies. While the legal status of psilocybin mushrooms in these regions may vary by country, there have been efforts to decriminalize their traditional use and integrate them into modern medicine.
Other Regions
The legal status of psilocybin mushrooms in other parts of the world, such as Asia, South America, Africa, and Australia, can vary, but overall, possession of psilocybin-containing mushrooms has been outlawed in most countries. However, with increasing research into the therapeutic potential of psilocybin, there may be a shift towards decriminalization or regulated access for medical purposes in some regions.
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Frequently asked questions
Psilocybin mushrooms, or magic mushrooms, are believed to have originated in Mesoamerica. They have been consumed in spiritual and divinatory ceremonies by indigenous cultures for centuries.
The use of psilocybin mushrooms may date back to 4000 BCE, as depicted in cave paintings in Spain. They were also referred to as "flesh of the gods" in Aztec rituals.
Psilocybin mushrooms gained popularity in the 1960s and 1970s, with figures like Timothy Leary promoting their use and conducting experiments based on psychedelic drugs at Harvard University.
