John Miller
Mushrooms are the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting bodies of fungi, typically produced above ground on soil or another food source. The terms mushroom and toadstool have been used interchangeably for centuries, with toadstool generally referring to a poisonous mushroom in modern terminology. The first mushrooms evolved on Earth between 715 and 810 million years ago, according to a study led by Steeve Bonneville from the Université libre de Bruxelles. Ancient rock formations from this period, found in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, contain fossilized remains of mycelium, a network of interconnected microscopic fungal strands. The discovery of mushrooms' medicinal and psychedelic properties has sparked interest in their decriminalization and therapeutic use.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| First appearance on Earth | Between 715 and 810 million years ago |
| Discovery of first mushrooms | Cave paintings from 9000 BC in North Africa and Europe, and 4000 BC in Spain |
| Arrival in the United States | 20th Century |
| Legal status | Illegal in the United States since 1970, decriminalized in Oregon in 2020, and in Denver, Colorado, in 2018 |
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Ancient cave paintings
The use of mushrooms has been recorded in ancient cave paintings, with some of the earliest known examples found in Spain and Algeria.
Spain
The Selva Pascuala rock shelter in eastern Spain is a prehistoric archaeological site with rock art featuring mushrooms. Discovered in 1918, the mural depicts mushrooms and a bull. The naturalistic style of the painting, along with archaeo and myco studies, dates it to around 4000 BC. The mushroom species is hypothesized to be Psilocybe hispanica, which grows in the region and is known to grow in the dung of animals.
Algeria
The Tassili n'Ajjer site in Algeria features Neolithic petroglyphs and cave paintings that are believed to be around 9,000 years old. Some researchers interpret these paintings as depicting mushrooms, specifically the Psilocybe genus, and having shamanic connotations. This interpretation was popularized by Terence McKenna in his book "Food of the Gods," where he suggests that the Neolithic culture inhabiting the site used psilocybin mushrooms in religious rituals. However, the interpretation of these paintings as mushrooms is disputed, with alternative explanations suggesting they may represent sheep or other objects.
California
While not ancient cave art, it is worth noting that researchers in a Californian cave found residual psychedelic compounds, specifically chewed remnants of the sacred datura flower (Datura wrightii), which has psychedelic properties. This provides evidence of the use of hallucinogenic substances by ancient peoples alongside cave art.
These ancient cave paintings provide valuable insights into the use of mushrooms, particularly psychedelic varieties, by our ancestors. They indicate a turning point in human consciousness, reflecting our ability to use symbols and images to represent experiences, including altered states of consciousness achieved through the use of hallucinogenic substances.
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Ancient rituals
The use of magic mushrooms in ancient rituals dates back thousands of years, with evidence of their use in religious and spiritual ceremonies found in various ancient civilizations. Here are some examples of ancient rituals involving magic mushrooms:
Central America
The heartland of psilocybin history lies in Central America, where evidence of mushroom worship dates back to at least 1000 BCE. Native American cultures like the Mayans and Aztecs had symbols, statues, and paintings indicating their consumption of psilocybin mushrooms, especially during religious rituals, as a way to communicate with deities. In the Nahuatl language spoken by these civilizations, magic mushrooms were called "Teonanácatl," translating to "flesh of the gods," reflecting their revered status. Aztec Mayan and Toltec religious myths mention mushrooms, stating that they were given to their ancestors by the serpent god Quetzalcoatl, who was honoured as the creator of all life.
Mesoamerica
In Mesoamerica, ancient mushroom-shaped sculptures and figurines have been discovered, symbolizing the mushrooms' role in spiritual practices. These artifacts suggest that psilocybin mushrooms were central to shamanistic rituals and healing ceremonies. The Mixtec and Zapotec tribes originating in Mesoamerica also consumed psilocybin mushrooms for similar ritualistic purposes.
Ancient Greece
In Ancient Greece, the Eleusinian Mysteries were infamous ritual ceremonies that worshipped the goddess Demeter and involved the consumption of a psychoactive concoction containing psychedelic mushrooms. These rituals were highly secretive, yet attracted famous figures like Plato, Homer, and Aristotle.
Ancient Egypt
The Ancient Egyptians also incorporated magic mushrooms into their spiritual practices, evident from the numerous pieces of artwork they left behind. They believed that mushrooms, which they dubbed the "food of gods," were placed on Earth by the god Osiris. Due to their sacred nature, only priests and the upper class were allowed to consume them.
The use of psilocybin mushrooms in these ancient rituals was not merely recreational but was deeply rooted in the belief that they served as a conduit to the spiritual realm, connecting the physical world with the divine.
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Medicinal use
While the exact origin of mushrooms is unknown, fossilized remains of mycelium (a network of interconnected microscopic strands) were discovered in rocks in the Democratic Republic of Congo, dated to be between 715 and 810 million years old. These ancient mushrooms may have been crucial in the evolution of the first plants on Earth.
The medicinal properties of mushrooms have been recognized in various ancient cultures. For instance, in 4000 BCE, cave paintings in Spain depicted the use of hallucinogenic mushrooms, specifically the Psilocybe hispanica species. Similarly, North African and European cave paintings from 9000 BCE may allude to the use of magic mushrooms. Additionally, Aztec rituals included a hallucinogenic substance called "flesh of the gods," which could have been derived from mushrooms.
In modern times, the therapeutic potential of psilocybin mushrooms has been explored. In 1956, Roger Heim identified the psychoactive mushroom species Psilocybe, and two years later, Albert Hofmann isolated psilocybin and psilocin as the active compounds responsible for the mushrooms' effects.
Initially, research on psilocybin mushrooms was limited due to legal restrictions. However, in the early 21st century, studies began to emerge investigating their potential to treat drug dependence, anxiety, and mood disorders. Researchers at Johns Hopkins University found that psilocybin mushrooms could be effective in treating PTSD, depression, and anxiety, as well as aiding in smoking cessation.
The state of Oregon, in 2020, became the first in the United States to decriminalize psilocybin and legalize it for therapeutic use, marking a significant step toward recognizing the medicinal value of mushrooms.
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Evolution
The term "mushroom" has evolved over the centuries, with variations such as "mushrom," "mushrum," and "musserouns" being used as early as the 15th and 16th centuries. The term may have derived from the French word "mousseron," referring to moss ("mousse"). While the word "toadstool" first appeared in 14th-century England, it generally refers to poisonous mushrooms.
The evolution of mushrooms as a life form dates back much further. Fossilized remains of mycelium, a network of interconnected microscopic strands, were discovered in rocks between 715 and 810 million years old in the Democratic Republic of Congo. This discovery suggests that mushrooms were important partners to the first plants that colonized the Earth's surface around 500 million years ago.
The earliest evidence of hallucinogenic mushroom use comes from a 4000 BCE cave painting in Spain, which depicts Psilocybe hispanica, a hallucinogenic mushroom species. Additionally, North African and European cave paintings from 9000 BCE may allude to magic mushroom use, and Aztec rituals included a hallucinogenic substance called "flesh of the gods," which could have been mushrooms.
In the 20th century, mushrooms gained prominence in the United States when an executive at J.P. Morgan Bank brought them back from vacation. In 1956, Roger Heim identified the psychoactive mushroom brought back from Mexico by R. Gordon Wasson as Psilocybe, and Albert Hofmann identified psilocybin and psilocin as the active compounds in these mushrooms. Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert started the Harvard Psilocybin Project in 1960 to promote psychological and religious studies of psilocybin and other psychedelic drugs.
Today, mushrooms continue to be a subject of research and interest. They are used extensively in cooking and have potential medicinal uses, such as treating PTSD, depression, and anxiety. The vitamin D content in mushrooms has also been enhanced through postharvest exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light, making them a functional food source.
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Dye and textiles
Mushrooms have been used as a source of textile dyes. Before the invention of synthetic dyes, mushrooms were the source of many dyes used in textiles.
In 1968, artist Miriam C. Rice began experimenting with natural dyes to make inks for her block prints while teaching children about natural dyes in art classes at the Mendocino Art Center. She discovered the full spectrum of colours from mushrooms. In 1973, a weaver friend encouraged her to contact Thresh Publications in Santa Rosa, California, which published several books on spinning, dyeing, and weaving. In 1974, Thresh published Rice's book, "Let's Try Mushrooms for Color," which detailed her experiences and experiments with mushroom dyes. The book became popular among international fibre artists searching for new sources of natural dye pigments.
In 1980, the first International Mushroom Dyes Textile Show, "FUNGI and FIBERS," was held in Mendocino, California. The exhibition featured contributions from Canada, Sweden, and Norway, showcasing the growing global interest in mushroom dyes. The event inspired the publication of books about mushroom dyes in Scandinavian countries and led to subsequent International Fungi & Fiber Symposiums in Finland, Scotland, Western Australia, Spain, Estonia, and Canada.
Mushrooms can be used to create colour dyes through colour extraction with a solvent, often ammonia, or by particulation of raw material. The type of mordant used can also alter the resulting colour. For example, the shingled hedgehog mushroom contains blue-green pigments, while the fruiting body of Hydnellum peckii can produce beige, blue, or green shades depending on the mordant added. Phaeolus schweinitzii yields green, yellow, gold, or brown colours, depending on the material dyed and the mordant used.
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Frequently asked questions
The first mushrooms are thought to have evolved between 715 and 810 million years ago, with fossilized remains of mycelium discovered in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Magic mushrooms were first discovered in Mexico by R. Gordon Wasson in 1957.
Magic mushrooms are commonly found in temperate parts of Europe, North America, Asia, South America, Australia, and New Zealand.
Magic mushrooms were made illegal in the United States in 1970. However, in 2020, Oregon became the first state to decriminalize and legalize them for therapeutic use.
One of the earliest depictions of hallucinogenic mushrooms is thought to be from a 4000 BCE cave painting in Spain. There are also suggestions that North African and European cave paintings from 9,000 BCE may allude to magic mushrooms.
