Emily Johnson
Mushroom foraging is a fun and rewarding activity, but it can be dangerous if you don't know what you're doing. Of the thousands of mushroom species in the world, only about 100 are toxic, and only 1-2% contain poisonous toxins. However, many of these deadly fungi bear an unfortunate resemblance to edible species, so it's important to be able to identify them to avoid severe poisoning, which can lead to liver and kidney failure, and even death. So, before you head out into the woods with your basket, let's take a look at some of the most dangerous mushrooms out there and how to identify them.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Common Name | Death Cap |
| Scientific Name | Amanita phalloides |
| Toxin | Amatoxin, specifically alpha-amanitin |
| Symptoms | Vomiting, profuse watery diarrhea, severe liver damage, kidney failure, loss of muscle contraction, cell death, death |
| Onset of Symptoms | 6-12 hours after ingestion |
| Treatment | Quick, professional care |
| Similarity to Edible Species | Resembles straw mushrooms and Caesar's mushrooms |
| Region | Europe, Pacific Northwest |
| Season | August to November |
| Habitat | Ground in broadleaved woods, especially oak and birch trees |
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What You'll Learn
Amanita phalloides (Death Cap)
Amanita phalloides, commonly known as the death cap, is a deadly poisonous basidiomycete fungus and mushroom. It is the most poisonous of all known mushrooms and is responsible for 90% of mushroom-related fatalities every year. It is estimated that as little as half a mushroom contains enough toxin to kill an adult human.
The death cap is similar in appearance to several edible species, including Caesar's mushroom and the straw mushroom, increasing the risk of accidental poisoning. The large fruiting bodies (mushrooms) appear in summer and autumn; the caps are generally greenish in colour with a white stipe and gills. The cap colour is variable, including white forms, and is thus not a reliable identifier. The gills are broad and free, pure white, turning cream or even slightly pink as they age. The spores are smooth and elliptical in shape, and the spore print is white. The stem is off-white, 7–15 cm high with a floppy ring, swollen at the base, and sits in a bag or volva. Death caps are found throughout Europe and have been introduced to other parts of the world since the late twentieth century. They are often found in mixed deciduous woods, particularly under oak and beech trees, and form ectomycorrhizas with various broadleaved trees.
The principal toxic constituent of the death cap is α-Amanitin, which causes liver and kidney failure. The major toxic mechanism is the inhibition of RNA polymerase II, a vital enzyme in the synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA), microRNA, and small nuclear RNA (snRNA). Without mRNA, essential protein synthesis and hence cell metabolism stop, leading to cell death. The liver is the principal organ affected, as it is the first organ encountered after absorption in the gastrointestinal tract, although other organs, especially the kidneys, are also susceptible.
Symptoms of poisoning by the death cap mushroom include gastrointestinal upset, vomiting, and profuse watery diarrhoea, typically occurring 6-12 hours after ingestion. This is followed by severe liver damage, which may continue for another 2-3 days. Overall, mortality from death cap poisoning is between 10 and 15%. However, if treated quickly with professional care, amatoxin poisoning can be managed.
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Galerina marginata (Autumn Skullcap)
Galerina marginata, commonly known as the autumn skullcap, is a highly poisonous mushroom species. It is sometimes mistaken for hallucinogenic mushrooms, and its ingestion can be deadly. It is a gilled, wood-rotting mushroom found throughout the Northern Hemisphere and parts of Australia.
The autumn skullcap is characterised by its brown to yellow-brown caps that fade in colour when drying. The gills are brownish and produce a rusty spore print. The caps are initially convex, with curved edges against the gills, and they grow to become broadly convex and then flattened. The caps of older fruit bodies are flatter, and the gills and stems are browner. The diameter of the cap ranges from 1 to 6 centimetres. The species is a classic example of a ""little brown mushroom", a category that encompasses all small to medium-sized brownish mushrooms that are challenging to distinguish from one another.
The autumn skullcap contains amatoxins, the same toxins found in the deadly death cap mushroom (Amanita phalloides). Amatoxins block DNA replication, leading to cell death, particularly in the kidneys, liver, and central nervous system. Ingesting this mushroom causes severe gastrointestinal symptoms, including vomiting and diarrhoea, as well as hypothermia and liver damage. If left untreated, it can result in death.
To avoid accidental consumption of poisonous mushrooms like the autumn skullcap, it is crucial to familiarise yourself with the appearance of both toxic and edible mushroom species. Additionally, some cooking methods and preparations can enhance the safety of consuming wild mushrooms. However, it is important to note that certain toxins, such as amatoxins, are heat-stable, and cooking will not eliminate their toxicity.
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Amanita verna (Destroying Angel)
Amanita verna, also known as the destroying angel or fool's mushroom, is a deadly poisonous mushroom. It is one of several species of all-white mushrooms in the genus Amanita that are similar in appearance to edible button and meadow mushrooms. This close resemblance to edible species makes the destroying angel especially dangerous.
The fool's mushroom is pure white, from its cap down to its gills and stipe. Its cap is 5-10 centimetres (2-4 inches) wide and about the same height. The mushroom's spores are smooth and elliptical. It grows in European woodlands and hardwood forests in springtime.
Amanita verna contains a fatal dose of alpha-amanitin, which causes liver failure if not treated immediately. Mushroom poisoning from alpha-amanitin ingestion typically occurs 6-24 hours after consumption, with violent cramps and diarrhoea as the first symptoms. On the third day, these symptoms repeat, and severe liver damage begins. This damage may continue for another 2-3 days. Amatoxin poisoning is treatable if quick, professional care is received.
To prevent mushroom poisoning, foragers should familiarize themselves with the mushrooms they intend to collect, as well as with any similar-looking toxic species. It is important to note that some mushroom toxins, such as amatoxins, are thermostable, meaning the mushrooms containing these toxins will remain unsafe to eat even after cooking.
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Poisonous lookalikes
Poisonous mushrooms were once called toadstools. They look no different than any variety of edible mushroom—they have stems, caps, gills, and other similar features. The difference between edible and poisonous mushroom species is sometimes very subtle, and only an expert can tell the difference. Edible mushroom identification is based on body and cap forms, colour, gills, size, spore print, texture, and more. Even where the fungi grow can be a clue as to the mushroom variety.
Death Cap (Amanita phalloides)
The death cap is one of the most poisonous mushrooms in the world and is responsible for most mushroom-related deaths. It is found in many parts of the world and has been misidentified as the edible straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea), field mushroom (Agaricus campestris), and when young, a puffball.
Destroying Angel (Amanita verna)
The destroying angel is another highly poisonous species found in many parts of the world. It is often mistaken for the edible meadow mushroom (Agaricus campestris).
False Chanterelle (Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca)
The false chanterelle is found in North America and Europe and resembles the edible chanterelle (Cantharellus cibarius).
Fool's Mushroom (Amanita citrina)
The fool's mushroom is found in Europe and resembles the edible honey fungus (Armillaria mellea).
Jack O'Lantern Mushroom
The Jack O'Lantern mushroom is poisonous and glows a soft greenish light in the dark. It can look similar to the Chanterelle, a non-poisonous mushroom.
If you are not an experienced mushroom hunter and are unable to accurately identify a mushroom, it is best to avoid consuming it.
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Amatoxin poisoning
The most common mushrooms implicated in amatoxin poisoning and liver injury include Amanita phalloides (death cap), Amanita virosa (destroying angel), Amanita verna (fool's mushroom), and Galerina autumnalis (autumn skullcap). These mushrooms often resemble edible species, leading to accidental poisoning. For example, the death cap is commonly mistaken for the paddy straw mushroom, while the autumn skullcap may be misidentified as hallucinogenic Psilocybe mushrooms.
The symptoms of amatoxin poisoning typically begin 6-12 hours after ingestion, with gastrointestinal upset, including vomiting and watery diarrhea, being the initial signs. This stage is primarily caused by phallotoxins, another type of toxin found in Amanita mushrooms, and usually lasts for about 24 hours. Subsequently, severe liver damage ensues, which may continue for another 2-3 days. Other possible symptoms include irritation of the respiratory tract, headache, dizziness, nausea, shortness of breath, coughing, insomnia, gastrointestinal disturbances, back pain, urinary frequency, kidney damage, and in severe cases, death.
Treatment for amatoxin poisoning involves supportive care, as there is no specific antidote. Patients are typically administered high-dose penicillin and intravenous fluids to normalize fluid loss, electrolyte balance, and glucose levels. N-acetyl-cysteine and silymarin have also been used to treat potential liver injury and promote liver regeneration, respectively. If patients present early, decontamination with oral activated charcoal may be performed. Death is rare if treatment is started promptly, and early access to intensive care can significantly reduce mortality rates.
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Frequently asked questions
Some dangerous types of mushrooms include Death Cap, Web Cap, Destroying Angels, Autumn Skullcap, and Poisonous Webcap.
The Death Cap mushroom, or Amanita phalloides, is considered to be the most toxic mushroom in the world. It is responsible for the highest number of fatal mushroom poisonings across the globe.
The symptoms of mushroom poisoning vary depending on the species and the toxin ingested. Some common symptoms include vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal cramping, nausea, and liver and kidney damage. In some cases, mushroom poisoning can lead to liver failure, kidney failure, and even death.
To avoid mushroom poisoning, it is important to properly identify mushrooms before consuming them. Familiarize yourself with both edible and toxic mushroom species, especially those that are similar in appearance. When foraging, take photos and collect samples of mushrooms to be identified by experts. Do not consume wild mushrooms unless you are certain they are safe to eat.
