Michael Davis
There are about 6000 ingestions of toxic mushrooms in the United States annually, with over half of these exposures in children under six. While most mushrooms are not toxic, some are seriously dangerous and even deadly. Poisonous mushrooms contain a variety of different toxins that can cause anything from mild gastrointestinal upset to organ failure and death. Many toxic mushrooms bear a resemblance to edible species, which makes them especially dangerous. Some of the most toxic mushrooms include the death cap, web cap, destroying angel, deadly dapperling, jack-o-lantern, and fool's conecap.
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What You'll Learn
Toxic mushrooms that resemble edible species
Many toxic mushrooms bear a resemblance to edible species, and consuming them can lead to severe health issues, including organ failure and death. Here are some examples of toxic mushrooms that resemble edible species:
Death Cap (Amanita phalloides)
The death cap mushroom is considered one of the deadliest mushrooms in the world. It is native to Europe and can also be found on the east and west coasts of the United States and in Canada. Young death caps can resemble puffballs, including the genera Calvatia, Calbovista, and Lycoperdon, as well as the edible paddy straw mushrooms. Death caps have a wide cap, often sticky to the touch, that can be yellowish, brownish, whitish, or greenish. The cap has white gills and grows on a stalk with a white cup at its base. Consuming this mushroom can lead to violent abdominal pain, vomiting, and bloody diarrhoea, causing rapid fluid loss and intense thirst.
Deadly Webcap (Cortinarius rubellus)
The deadly webcap mushroom is native to northern Europe. It is often mistaken for edible mushrooms due to its similar appearance. Ingesting this mushroom is extremely dangerous and can be fatal, with symptoms sometimes taking up to three weeks to appear.
Destroying Angel (Amanita verna)
The destroying angel is a highly poisonous mushroom found in many parts of the world, including woodlands and near shrubs and trees in suburban areas. It gets its name from its pure white stalks and caps. The destroying angel closely resembles the edible meadow mushroom (Agaricus campestris). Consuming this mushroom can lead to severe health issues, and even death.
Jack-O'-Lantern (Omphalotus olearius)
The Jack-O'-Lantern mushroom, also known as the "false chanterelle," is found in North America and resembles the edible orange chanterelle (Cantharellus californicus). It is brightly coloured and fruits at the same time of year as chanterelles, but it grows on wood and has true gills instead of veins. Consuming this mushroom can cause severe gastrointestinal symptoms.
Fool's Mushroom (Amanita citrina)
The Fool's Mushroom, also known as the Amanita citrina, is found in Europe and resembles the edible honey fungus (Armillaria mellea). It is important to distinguish between these two mushrooms as the Fool's Mushroom is toxic and can cause health issues if consumed.
Galerina marginata
Galerina marginata is a toxic mushroom that resembles the Psilocybe species, which are both small, brown, and sticky. However, Galerina contains amatoxins, a deadly poison also found in the Amanita species. Consuming Galerina marginata can lead to serious health issues and even hospitalization, as seen in one reported case.
It is crucial to properly identify mushrooms before consuming them, as some toxic mushrooms can closely resemble edible species. Familiarizing oneself with the key distinguishing features and characteristics of both edible and toxic mushrooms in one's region is essential to avoid accidental poisoning.
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Amatoxin poisoning
The mushrooms responsible for Amatoxin poisoning include Amanita phalloides (Death Cap), Amanita virosa (Destroying Angel), Amanita verna (Fool's Mushroom), Amanita bisporigera, Galerina autumnalis (Autumn Skullcap), and Galerina sulcipes. These mushrooms often resemble edible species, leading to accidental poisoning, which accounts for over 95% of mushroom intoxication cases. The period between ingestion and the onset of symptoms can vary, with some people experiencing no symptoms for up to 12 hours.
The symptoms of Amatoxin poisoning include violent abdominal pain, vomiting, bloody diarrhoea, rapid fluid loss, intense thirst, decreased urinary output, and lowered blood sugar. It can also lead to liver, kidney, and central nervous system damage. Treatment for Amatoxin poisoning focuses on supportive care, as there is no specific antidote. Patients are typically administered high-dose penicillin, N-acetyl-cysteine, and Silymarin, along with fluid and electrolyte management.
To prevent Amatoxin poisoning, it is crucial to correctly identify mushrooms before consumption. Mushroom gatherers should familiarize themselves with both edible and toxic mushroom species, as well as their methods of preparation for cooking, as some toxins, including amatoxins, are heat-stable and remain toxic even when cooked.
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Orellanine poisoning
Orellanine is a toxin produced by some mushroom species of the Cortinarius genus, which is typically found in Europe and North America. It is unique among known mushroom toxins in that it is the only one to selectively target the kidneys, frequently causing acute kidney injury (AKI) in humans when ingested.
The nephrotoxicity of Cortinarius orellanus was first recognized in the 1950s when this mushroom was identified as the cause of a mass poisoning in Poland. Typically, the onset of symptoms is delayed for 1-2 weeks after ingestion, with symptoms including mild gastrointestinal discomfort, followed by signs of renal impairment, including kidney failure, severe interstitial nephritis, acute focal tubular damage, and interstitial fibrosis. Orellanine poisoning can be fatal, as evidenced by the deaths of 10 out of 102 individuals affected by the toxin during the mass poisoning in Poland.
The toxin is not detected in urine, blood, or dialysis fluids, but it is frequently detected in renal biopsy samples, where it can be retained in a soluble form for as long as 6 months post-ingestion. Orellanine is not effectively cleared by hemodialysis, hemoperfusion, or plasmapheresis, and there is currently no specific antidote for orellanine poisoning. Treatment focuses on preventing secondary complications of kidney failure and managing chronic renal insufficiency.
To prevent orellanine poisoning, it is important to correctly identify mushrooms before ingestion, as many toxic mushrooms bear a resemblance to edible species.
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Mushroom toxins and their effects
Mushroom toxins are secondary metabolites produced by the fungus. While most mushrooms are not toxic, there are approximately 100 toxic species out of the thousands of mushroom species. Poisonous mushrooms contain a variety of different toxins, with symptoms ranging from mild gastrointestinal upset to organ failure and death. The period between ingestion and the onset of symptoms varies dramatically between toxins, with some taking days to show symptoms.
One of the most well-known mushroom toxins is amatoxin, which is found in the deadly dapperling, Galerina, and several Amanita species, including the death cap and death angel mushrooms. Amatoxins cause severe liver toxicity and can be lethal if immediate treatment is not received. Symptoms of amatoxin poisoning include violent abdominal pain, vomiting, and bloody diarrhoea, leading to rapid fluid loss and intense thirst. Other symptoms, such as decreased urinary output and low blood sugar, may also indicate severe involvement of the liver, kidneys, and central nervous system. Amatoxins are heat-stable, so mushrooms containing these toxins cannot be made safe to eat by cooking.
Another toxin found in mushrooms is orellanine, which is present in some species of Cortinarius, including deadly webcaps and Cortinarius orellanus. Orellanine causes kidney failure, with symptoms typically appearing around 11 days after ingestion. These symptoms include pain in the area of the kidneys, thirst, vomiting, headache, and fatigue.
Mushrooms in the Psilocybe genus contain psilocybin, which is a hallucinogen that acts as an agonist or partial agonist at 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) subtype receptors. Ingestion of psilocybin can lead to altered sensorium, euphoria, hallucinations, and abdominal cramping.
Other toxins found in mushrooms include muscarine, coprine, allenic norleucine, and gyromitrin. Muscarine stimulates the muscarinic receptors of nerves and muscles, resulting in symptoms such as sweating, salivation, tears, blurred vision, palpitations, and respiratory failure in high doses. Coprine, found in the Alcohol Ink Cap mushroom, is highly reactive with alcohol and can cause headaches, extreme nausea, and other unpleasant symptoms even several days before or after consuming alcohol. Gyromitrin, found in some species of False Morels, affects the central nervous system and can lead to nausea, convulsions, coma, and death.
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Preventing mushroom poisoning
Mushroom poisoning is a serious condition that can lead to death in some cases. It is caused by ingesting mushrooms that contain toxic substances. While most mushrooms are not toxic, it can be difficult to tell which mushrooms are safe to eat and which are not. Therefore, it is important to take precautions to prevent mushroom poisoning. Here are some ways to help prevent mushroom poisoning:
Familiarize yourself with mushrooms: Before consuming any wild mushrooms, it is crucial to properly identify them. Mushroom gatherers should educate themselves about the mushrooms they intend to collect, as well as any similar-looking toxic species. Learn about the characteristics, habitat, and potential toxins of the mushrooms in your area. Take pictures and collect samples of mushrooms you find to help with identification. Remember that mushrooms with similar appearances can have different levels of toxicity.
Be cautious with wild mushrooms: Assume that all wild mushrooms are poisonous unless you are certain of their edibility. Avoid consuming mushrooms found on the ground, in lawns, or in forests. Mushrooms growing in these areas may be exposed to pesticides and other harmful substances. Instead, opt for mushrooms that grow on living trees, as they are generally safer.
Cooking and preparation: The safety of consuming wild mushrooms may depend on how they are prepared and cooked. Some mushroom toxins, such as amatoxins, are heat-stable, meaning they withstand cooking temperatures and remain toxic. Cooking poisonous mushrooms does not necessarily remove the toxins, so proper identification is crucial.
Avoid risky mushrooms: Stay away from mushrooms with known toxic tendencies. For example, the Death Cap (Amanita phalloides) is considered one of the deadliest mushrooms, resembling edible straw mushrooms and Caesar's mushrooms. Other toxic mushrooms include Webcaps, Deadly Dapperlings, Destroying Angels, and Galerina marginata.
Seek expert identification: Mushroom identification can be challenging, and misidentification is a common cause of mushroom poisoning. If you are unsure about a mushroom's identity, seek expert advice from mycologists, botanists, or poison control centres. Only consume commercially cultivated mushrooms if you are unsure about wild mushroom identification.
Supervise children and pets: Keep children and pets away from areas where wild mushrooms grow. Most mushroom poisonings in children occur when they ingest mushrooms found outdoors. Similarly, pets can be at risk of mushroom poisoning if they consume wild mushrooms.
Symptoms and treatment: Be aware of the symptoms of mushroom poisoning, which can vary from gastrointestinal discomfort to organ failure. If you suspect mushroom poisoning, seek immediate medical attention and bring a sample of the mushroom, if possible. Activated charcoal is often used to limit toxin absorption in cases of mushroom poisoning.
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Frequently asked questions
There are about 100 toxic mushroom species out of the vast number of mushroom species. Some of the most well-known toxic mushrooms are:
- Death Cap (Amanita phalloides)
- Webcap (Cortinarius rubellus)
- Deadly Dapperling
- Angel's Wings
- Jack-o-Lantern
Symptoms of mushroom poisoning can vary from slight gastrointestinal discomfort to death in about 10 days. Serious symptoms do not always occur immediately and may take days or weeks to appear. Some of the symptoms include:
- Vomiting
- Diarrhea
- Abdominal pain
- Kidney failure
- Hallucinations
It can be hard to identify mushrooms just from photos or vague descriptions, especially if they are small. Here are some tips to identify toxic mushrooms:
- If there is any red on the mushroom, including the cap, stem, or pores, treat it as poisonous.
- If the flesh of the mushroom stains blue when cut in half, it is likely toxic.
- Avoid mushrooms that exude a milky substance from the gills when touched, as most of these are toxic.
- Be cautious of mushrooms that grow on wood, like the Jack-o-Lantern, which has gills instead of veins.
- Familiarize yourself with the mushrooms you intend to collect, as well as their toxic look-alikes.
If you think you have ingested a toxic mushroom, seek medical attention immediately. Bring a sample of the mushroom with you to the hospital if possible, as this can help with identification and treatment. Do not wait for symptoms to appear, as some toxins can take days or weeks to show effects.
