Michael Davis
Mushrooms are a type of fungus that is often consumed and cultivated by humans. While they are often considered a healthy food, certain varieties of mushrooms contain hydrazine, a group of chemical compounds that are generally considered carcinogenic. The wild false morel, Gyromitra esculenta, and the commonly eaten, cultivated mushroom Agaricus bisporus are two edible mushrooms known to contain hydrazine analogs. The former contains up to 0.3% acetaldehyde methylformylhydrazone and N-methyl-N-formylhydrazine (MFH), while the latter contains up to 0.04% beta-N-[gamma-L(+)-glutamyl]-4-hydroxymethylphenylhydrazine and 4-hydroxymethylphenylhydrazine. These hydrazine compounds are mostly heat-sensitive and can be removed by proper cooking. However, it is important to exercise caution when consuming wild mushrooms as some varieties may contain dangerous levels of hydrazine or other toxins.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Mushrooms containing hydrazine | Gyromitra esculenta (false morel), Agaricus bisporus (button mushroom), Agaricus blazei Murrill, and Gyromitra montana |
| Forms of hydrazine present | Gyromitrin, monomethylhydrazine (MMH), N-methyl-N-formylhydrazone, N-methyl-N-formylhydrazine (MFH), beta-N-[gamma-L(+)-glutamyl]-4-hydroxymethylphenylhydrazine, 4-hydroxymethylphenylhydrazine, acetaldehyde methylformylhydrazone, methylhydrazine, agaritine |
| Toxicity | Hydrazine compounds are generally considered carcinogenic. Gyromitrin poisoning can cause gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms, including nausea, vomiting, watery diarrhea, dehydration, dizziness, lethargy, vertigo, tremors, ataxia, nystagmus, headaches, fever, kidney damage, liver damage, seizures, and coma. The mortality rate for gyromitrin poisoning cases worldwide is about 10%Cooking mushrooms properly can help remove hydrazine compounds</co: 6,7,10>, especially by cutting them into small pieces and repeatedly boiling them in water under good ventilation. Prolonged air drying can also reduce hydrazine levels. |
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What You'll Learn
Gyromitra esculenta (false morel) contains hydrazine
Gyromitra esculenta, commonly known as the false morel, is a member of a group of fungi known as false morels. False morels are often found under conifers, aspens, and sometimes around melting snow banks. They are typically found growing directly on rotten wood or on the ground nearby. G. esculenta is distinguished by its orange-brown colour and its 'brainlike' cap.
G. esculenta contains hydrazine compounds, specifically hydrazines, hydrazones, and hydrazides, including gyromitrin. Gyromitrin is a hydrazone that is rapidly broken down upon heating or in stomach acid to N-methyl-N-formylhydrazine (MFH) with the release of acetaldehyde. The hydrazine compounds present (naturally occurring gyromitrin) convert to monomethylhydrazine (MMH) when heated. The mushroom also contains up to 0.3% acetaldehyde methylformylhydrazone and N-methyl-N-formylhydrazine (MFH). The latter chemical, under certain conditions, also yields methylhydrazine.
G. esculenta is toxic and can be deadly. It is considered a poisonous mushroom unless it is properly dried and boiled. The process of boiling and drying decreases, but does not completely eliminate, the toxin concentrations. The principal poisonous ingredient is gyromitrin, which is carcinogenic to animals and can give rise to the carcinogen methylhydrazine under acidic conditions, such as exist in the stomach. Both methylhydrazine and another carcinogen, N-methyl-N-formylhydrazine, appear to form during the preparation of false morels for consumption. Cooking must be performed in an open vessel to allow methylhydrazine to escape; otherwise, poisoning can occur.
Despite its toxicity, G. esculenta is marketed and consumed in several countries or states in Europe and North America. It is still highly regarded and consumed in Bulgaria, being sold in markets and picked for export. In some countries, such as Spain, they are traditionally considered a delicacy, and many people report consuming them for many years with no ill effects.
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Agaricus bisporus (button mushroom) contains hydrazine
The Agaricus bisporus, commonly known as the button mushroom, is cultivated in over 70 countries and is of particular socio-economic importance in developed nations. It is the most widely cultivated mushroom in the USA, Europe, and parts of Australasia.
Agaricus bisporus contains hydrazine derivatives known as agaritine, which is an α-amino acid and a derivative of phenylhydrazine. Agaricus bisporus contains up to 0.04% beta-N-[gamma-L(+)-glutamyl]-4-hydroxymethylphenylhydrazine and 4-hydroxymethylphenylhydrazine. Agaritine is present as a natural mycotoxin in fresh samples of at least 24 species of the genera Agaricus, Leucoagaricus, and Macrolepiota. Agaritine content varies between individual mushrooms and across species. For example, in raw Agaricus bisporus, it ranges from 0.033% to 0.173%, with an average of 0.088%. The highest amount of agaritine is found in the cap and gills of the fruiting body, and the lowest in the stem.
Agaritine has been described in some mouse studies as a potential carcinogen, with bladder implantation tests showing a carcinogenic effect on the mouse bladder epithelium. However, these studies have typically used chemically synthesized compounds in non-physiologically relevant doses. Furthermore, agaritine content decreases after boiling the mushrooms in water at 100 degrees Celsius for 10 minutes, and cooking mushrooms generally reduces the likelihood of gastrointestinal irritation and allergenic reactions.
Newer studies and human food safety studies have concluded that agaritine consumption from Agaricus bisporus mushrooms does not pose a toxicological risk to healthy humans. Agaricus bisporus and other mushroom extracts have also been shown to have potential health benefits, such as inhibiting cell proliferation of leukemia cells and improving insulin resistance in patients with type II diabetes.
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Agaricus bisporus is cultivated in over 70 countries
The Agaricus bisporus, commonly known as the cultivated mushroom, is a basidiomycete mushroom native to grasslands in Eurasia and North America. It is cultivated in more than 70 countries and is one of the most commonly and widely consumed mushrooms in the world. It is grown on every continent except Antarctica.
A. bisporus has two colour states while immature – white and brown. The white mushroom was discovered in 1925 in Coatesville, Pennsylvania, and became popular due to its attractive appearance, similar to the reception of white bread. Commercially available cream-coloured mushrooms today are products of this 1925 chance natural mutation. When marketed in its mature state, the mushroom is brown with a cap measuring 10-15 cm in diameter. This form is commonly sold under names such as portobello, portabella, or portobella.
The Agaricus bisporus has several poisonous lookalikes in the wild, including Entoloma sinuatum, Agaricus xanthodermus, and the Amanita genus, which are referred to as destroying angels. The A. bisporus can be distinguished by its pinkish or brown gills, whereas the destroying angels have pure white gills.
A. bisporus is of particular socioeconomic importance in developed countries. It is a good edible mushroom and is considered safe to eat raw, although some people may experience gastrointestinal irritation or an allergic reaction. It is 92% water, 3% carbohydrates, 3% protein, and contains negligible fat. It contains hydrazine compounds, specifically the natural mycotoxin agaritine, which is present in varying amounts in fresh samples of at least 24 species of the Agaricus genus. Agaritine content in raw A. bisporus ranges from 0.033% to 0.173%, with an average of 0.088%. The highest amount is found in the cap and gills of the mushroom, and it decomposes significantly between harvest and sale, as well as upon cooking and freezing. While agaritine is recognised as an experimental carcinogen in high laboratory doses, there is inadequate evidence to classify it as carcinogenic to humans in the amounts present in consumed mushrooms.
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Gyromitrin is a hydrazine compound found in false morels
Gyromitrin is a volatile, water-soluble compound that can be hydrolyzed in the body into monomethylhydrazine (MMH). It is considered toxic, with symptoms of poisoning including gastrointestinal issues such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea, as well as neurological symptoms like dizziness, headaches, and in severe cases, seizures and coma. The toxicity of Gyromitra esculenta was first identified in 1885 by Böhm and Külz, who attributed it to helvellic acid. However, the specific toxic compound, gyromitrin, was not isolated and named until 1968 by German scientists List and Luft.
The concentration of gyromitrin in false morels varies, with reports ranging from 40 to 732 milligrams per kilogram of mushrooms (wet weight). The toxin is more concentrated in the stems, with mushrooms collected at higher altitudes containing less gyromitrin. To reduce the toxin levels, false morels can be cut into small pieces and repeatedly boiled in water, or air-dried for prolonged periods.
While Gyromitra esculenta has not been observed to cause cancer in humans, studies have shown that it is carcinogenic in experimental animals. At least 11 different hydrazines have been isolated from this mushroom, and there may be a potential carcinogenic risk for humans who consume them. Proper cooking methods are crucial to reducing the risk associated with hydrazine compounds in false morels, and consuming wild mushrooms requires caution.
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Agaricus mushrooms are considered safe for raw consumption
While Agaricus mushrooms are considered safe for raw consumption, there are some drawbacks to eating them uncooked. Agaricus mushrooms, including the commonly eaten button mushroom, contain various hydrazines, specifically agaritine, a group of chemical compounds generally considered carcinogenic. Agaritine is a natural mycotoxin present in fresh samples of at least 24 species of mushrooms, including those of the Agaricus genus. It is an α-amino acid and a derivative of phenylhydrazine. Agaricus bisporus, also known as the common button mushroom, contains up to 0.04% beta-N-[gamma-L(+)-glutamyl]-4-hydroxymethylphenylhydrazine and 4-hydroxymethylphenylhydrazine.
However, it is important to note that the carcinogenic effects of agaritine have been disputed. While it has been recognized as an experimental carcinogen when used in high laboratory doses, there is insufficient evidence to classify it as carcinogenic to humans in the amounts typically ingested from consuming mushrooms. In fact, recent studies have shown that agaritine purified from Agaricus blazei has direct antitumor activity against leukemic tumor cells, contradicting previous beliefs about its carcinogenicity.
The relatively unblemished history of human consumption of edible Agaricus species suggests that they can be safely consumed raw. There are no known cases of cancer or other maladies specifically resulting from eating Agaricus mushrooms. Cooking mushrooms is primarily recommended to improve digestibility and reduce the risk of gastrointestinal irritation and allergen reactions. However, some individuals prefer to consume Agaricus mushrooms raw, and the decision to consume them raw or cooked is a matter of personal preference.
It is worth noting that the button mushroom industry often promotes the use of their product in raw form, especially in salads, perpetuating the idea that mushrooms do not need to be cooked. While this may be a profit-driven policy, it is essential to exercise caution and make informed decisions based on the available scientific evidence and personal comfort level with the potential risks.
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Frequently asked questions
Gyromitra esculenta, also known as "false morels", contain hydrazine. Agaricus bisporus, also known as the common button mushroom, contains hydrazine derivatives.
Symptoms of poisoning typically occur within 6-12 hours of consumption, with initial symptoms being gastrointestinal, including nausea, vomiting, and watery diarrhea. More severe symptoms include dizziness, lethargy, vertigo, tremors, ataxia, nystagmus, and headaches. Fever is also common.
In most cases, symptoms of hydrazine poisoning resolve within 2-6 days without specific treatment. It is important to address dehydration if vomiting or diarrhea is severe. In more severe cases, kidney damage, liver damage, and neurological dysfunction may occur, requiring medical attention.
Yes, not all mushrooms contain hydrazine. When foraging for mushrooms, it is important to accurately identify mushroom species to avoid accidental poisoning. Morel mushrooms, for example, do not contain hydrazine but can be confused with false morels.
While Gyromitra esculenta is considered a deadly poisonous mushroom, some people believe that thorough cooking can effectively remove hydrazine compounds. Agaricus bisporus mushrooms, on the other hand, are widely consumed and considered safe for human consumption, with current evidence suggesting that they pose no toxicological risk. However, excessive consumption should be avoided.
