Laura Smith
Mushroom toxicity has been known for millennia and is implicated in the deaths of several historical figures. Poisonous mushrooms contain a variety of different toxins that can differ in toxicity, with symptoms ranging from gastrointestinal discomfort to organ failure and death. While there are no general identifiers for poisonous mushrooms, some guidelines exist to identify particular mushrooms. For example, some poisonous mushrooms are brightly colored, like the fly agaric, which is usually bright red to orange or yellow, while the deadly destroying angel is unremarkably white. However, some edible mushrooms are also brightly colored, like chanterelles. Many old wives' tales discuss the defining features of poisonous mushrooms, but these beliefs are unreliable. To prevent mushroom poisoning, it is crucial to familiarize yourself with both edible and toxic mushroom species, as misidentification can have severe consequences.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Number of toxic mushroom species | 100 out of 6000 |
| Annual ingestions in the US | 6000 |
| Proportion of ingestions by children under six | Over 50% |
| Symptoms | Gastrointestinal upset, organ failure, death |
| Toxins | Amatoxin, psilocybin, muscarine, coprine, allenic norleucine, gyromitrin, orellanine, muscimol, ibotenic acid, cyclopeptides |
| Poisonous mushroom species | Amanita, Galerina, Lepiota, Chlorophyllum molybdites, Clitocybe, Inocybe, Coprinopsis atramentaria, Jack O'Lantern, Omphalotus olearius, Conocybe, Agaricus Xanthodermus |
| Edible mushroom species | Chanterelles, Amanita caesarea, Laetiporus sulphureus, Calvatia gigantea, Shaggy Mane, Coprinus comatus |
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What You'll Learn
Common mushroom toxins
Mushroom poisoning is caused by the ingestion of mushrooms that contain toxic substances. While there are thousands of mushroom species, only about 100 are toxic. Poisonous mushrooms contain a variety of different toxins that can differ in toxicity. The symptoms of mushroom poisoning depend on the toxin ingested and can vary from slight gastrointestinal discomfort to organ failure and death.
One of the most common mushroom toxins is amatoxin, which is found in various mushroom species and causes the most fatalities every year. Amatoxin blocks the replication of DNA, leading to cell death. It can affect cells that replicate frequently, such as kidney and liver cells, and can also cause muscle contraction loss and liver failure. Amatoxin poisoning typically occurs in species such as Amanita, Galerina, and Lepiota, and is treatable if quick, professional care is administered.
Another common toxin is orellanine, which causes no symptoms for 3-20 days after ingestion. However, by day 11, kidney failure begins, and symptoms such as pain in the kidney area, thirst, vomiting, headache, and fatigue become apparent. Species in the Cortinarius genus contain this toxin, and some Amanita species contain a related toxin that causes similar symptoms within 3-6 days.
Muscarine is another common toxin found in mushrooms. It stimulates the muscarinic receptors of nerves and muscles, causing symptoms such as sweating, salivation, tears, blurred vision, palpitations, and respiratory failure in high doses. Mushrooms that contain muscarine include Clitocybe, Inocybe, and Amanita muscaria.
Coprine is a toxin found in mushrooms such as Coprinopsis atramentaria (formerly Coprinus atramentarius) and Clitocybe clavipes. When ingested with alcohol, coprine causes a disulfiram-like reaction, leading to symptoms such as headache, nausea, vomiting, flushing, tachycardia, and hypotension.
Gyromitrin is a toxin synthesized by certain species of false morel (Gyromitra esculenta) and is easily confused with the early false morel (Verpa bohemica). Gyromitrin poisoning can occur from ingesting the mushrooms or inhaling the cooking vapors during preparation. It is toxic to humans and can cause hepatic necrosis and interfere with enzymes in the body.
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Poisoning symptoms
The symptoms of mushroom poisoning can vary depending on the specific toxin ingested. For example, orellanine poisoning generally does not cause symptoms for 3–20 days, with kidney failure beginning around day 11 and symptoms becoming apparent by day 20. Muscarine poisoning, on the other hand, can cause symptoms such as sweating, salivation, tears, blurred vision, palpitations, and even respiratory failure in high doses.
Some of the most common toxins implicated in fatal mushroom poisonings include amatoxins, gyromitrins, and orellanine. Amatoxins are responsible for more than 95% of mushroom-related fatalities in the United States and are produced by some Amanita, Galerina, and Lepiota species. Gyromitrins, found in false morels, can cause hepatocellular damage and interfere with enzymes in the body.
Other toxins that can cause poisoning include psilocybin, which can lead to hallucinations, and coprine, which causes a disulfiram-like reaction when combined with alcohol. The onset of symptoms also depends on the mushroom ingested, with some causing symptoms within 2 hours and others causing symptoms after 5 hours or more.
If you suspect mushroom poisoning, it is important to seek medical help immediately. Treatment for mushroom poisoning is typically symptomatic and supportive, and activated charcoal may be used to limit the absorption of toxins.
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Poisonous mushrooms
While humans have consumed mushrooms since prehistory, mushroom poisoning has also been known for millennia and is implicated in the deaths of several historical figures, including Pope Clement VII and possibly Roman Emperor Claudius. Of the thousands of mushroom species, only about 100 are toxic, but many of these deadly fungi bear a resemblance to edible species, making them especially dangerous. The vast majority of mushroom-related deaths are caused by species in the genus Amanita, which are often mistaken for edible mushrooms because they develop from little balls called 'Amanita eggs'.
The deadly destroying angel (Amanita virosa) is native to many regions and fruits around mature trees in forests and yards. Its relative, Amanita phalloides, is commonly known as the death cap, and both species contain the toxin alpha-amanitin. Other common toxic species in the Amanita genus include Amanita muscaria, which contains trace amounts of muscarine, and Amanita smithiana, which contains orellanine.
Other poisonous mushrooms include the two species of webcap, the deadly webcap (Cortinarius rubellus) and the fool's webcap (Cortinarius orellanus), which feature the poison orellanin. The Conocybe filaris is a lawn mushroom commonly found in the Pacific Northwest, while the Gyromitre, or "brain mushroom", contains gyromitrin, which turns into a powerful toxin when ingested.
Symptoms of mushroom poisoning can vary from slight gastrointestinal discomfort to organ failure and death. The onset of symptoms depends on the type of toxin ingested and can range from 6 hours to 20 days after consumption. Some common toxins found in poisonous mushrooms include amatoxins, gyromitrins, orellanine, muscarine, psilocybin, muscimol, ibotenic acid, and coprine. To prevent mushroom poisoning, foragers should familiarize themselves with both edible mushrooms and similar-looking toxic species.
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Identifying toxic mushrooms
While there are no general identifiers for poisonous mushrooms, there are some guidelines that can help you distinguish between edible and toxic mushrooms. Here are some ways to identify toxic mushrooms and avoid potential poisoning:
Colour and Appearance
Although colour is not a definitive indicator, some poisonous mushrooms may have certain colours or characteristics that serve as warning signs. For example, the deadly destroying angel mushroom is unremarkably white, while the deadly galerinas are brown. In contrast, some edible mushrooms, like chanterelles, are brightly coloured. Additionally, the cap of a true morel is pitted, while the false morel's cap appears wavy and crumpled. True morels also have hollow stems, while false morels have solid stems.
Smell
Poisonous mushrooms may emit an unpleasant smell that discourages consumption. However, this is not a foolproof indicator, as many of these odours may not be detectable by humans.
Specific Mushroom Characteristics
Some mushrooms have unique characteristics that can help identify them as toxic. For example, the bolete mushroom is considered poisonous if it has any red on its cap, stem, or pores, or if its flesh stains blue when cut in half. Milkcaps, which mostly exude a milky substance from their gills, should also be avoided unless you are familiar with them, as most are toxic.
Toxic Lookalikes
Be cautious of toxic mushrooms that closely resemble edible species. For instance, the shaggy mane mushroom should be distinguished from the toxic alcohol inky cap, which lacks the same "shaggy" texture. Similarly, the edible giant puffball mushroom, Calvatia gigantea, must be carefully identified to avoid deadly toxic lookalikes like Amanita virosa and Amanita bisporigera.
Regional Knowledge
The edibility of mushrooms varies by location. Familiarise yourself with the mushrooms in your specific region to avoid accidental ingestion of toxic species. For example, the Alabama Mushroom Society lists 18 common edible mushroom species on its website.
Expert Identification
If you are unsure about a mushroom's identity, it is best to refrain from consuming it. Take photos and consult experts or identification guides specific to your region. Websites like wildfooduk.com offer identification services, and local societies like the Alabama Mushroom Society can provide valuable information.
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Hallucinogenic mushrooms
The effects of magic mushrooms typically begin within 30 minutes to 2 hours of ingestion and can last for 4 to 12 hours, depending on the amount consumed. The strength of magic mushrooms can vary greatly, and the effects can differ from person to person. The effects of magic mushrooms are influenced by factors such as the individual's state of mind, previous encounters with psychedelic drugs, expectations, and the environment in which they consume the mushrooms. Being in a calm, quiet, and relaxed environment can contribute to a positive experience, while being in a noisy, crowded place may result in a negative experience or a "bad trip".
The use of magic mushrooms rarely results in life-threatening symptoms, but consuming a large amount or a strong batch can lead to negative experiences. It is important to note that the production, sale, and possession of magic mushrooms are illegal in some countries, such as Canada, and they are controlled internationally under the United Nations Drug Control Conventions.
Psilocybin mushrooms have a long history of use among the native peoples of Mesoamerica for religious, divinatory, and healing purposes. Prehistoric rock art and sculptures suggest that they were used in rituals as early as 9000–7000 BCE in Tassili, Algeria, and 6000 years ago in Villar del Humo, Spain. In pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, they were known as "teōnanācatl," which translates to "divine mushroom" in the Nahuatl language.
While magic mushrooms have been associated with negative consequences and toxicity, there is also increasing interest in their potential therapeutic uses. Clinical trials with psilocybin have shown promising results, particularly in the field of mental health. Microdosing, or consuming a small amount of psilocybin mushrooms (less than 1 gram), has become a popular technique for recreational users who seek a less intense experience and potential alleviation of symptoms of depression.
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Frequently asked questions
No, but there are about 100 toxic species out of the thousands of mushroom species. Poisonous mushrooms contain a variety of different toxins that can differ in toxicity.
Symptoms can vary from slight gastrointestinal discomfort to organ failure resulting in death. Serious symptoms do not always occur immediately after eating, often not until the toxin attacks the kidney or liver, sometimes days or weeks later.
Unless you are an expert, do not pick and consume wild mushrooms. It is recommended that you only eat mushrooms you've bought from the supermarket, a greengrocer, or another reputable source. If you suspect that you or your child may have eaten a poisonous mushroom, do not wait for symptoms to occur before seeking medical attention.
