Sarah Brown
Amanita muscaria, commonly known as fly agaric, is a large white-gilled, white-spotted mushroom with a bright red cap. It is one of the most recognisable fungi in the world. It is native to the forests of the Northern Hemisphere and is now also found in the Southern Hemisphere. The mushroom gets its name from its traditional use as an insecticide, specifically to kill flies. It contains psychoactive compounds such as ibotenic acid and muscimol, which can induce effects similar to alcohol intoxication, including hallucinations and altered states of consciousness. While typically not toxic to the liver, reactions can vary significantly among individuals, and overdose may be lethal. Ingestion of a single Amanita pantherina mushroom, which resembles Amanita muscaria, can be fatal to small animals such as puppies.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Common name | Fly agaric, fly amanita |
| Scientific name | Amanita muscaria |
| Appearance | Large white-gilled, white-spotted mushroom with a bright red cap covered with distinctive white warts |
| Distribution | Native to the Northern Hemisphere's temperate and boreal forests, now also found in the Southern Hemisphere |
| Toxicity | Can cause poisoning, especially in children and those seeking its hallucinogenic effects; fatal poisonings are extremely rare |
| Symptoms | Similar to alcohol intoxication, including hallucinations and altered states of consciousness |
| Toxic dose | As little as a gram of dried A. muscaria may contain a psychoactive dose of muscimol |
| LD50 | 3.8 mg kg-1 subcutaneously, 2.5 mg kg-1 intraperitoneally, and 4.5 mg kg-1 orally in rats |
| Treatment | Rapid identification is crucial; activated charcoal and fluid administration are used, and in severe cases, liver transplantation may be necessary |
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What You'll Learn
Amanita muscaria's toxicity to animals
Amanita muscaria, commonly known as fly agaric, is a large white-gilled mushroom with a bright red cap covered in distinctive white warts. It is one of the most recognisable fungi in the world. Native to the forests of the Northern Hemisphere, it has now also spread to the Southern Hemisphere. The name 'fly agaric' comes from its traditional use as an insecticide, specifically to kill flies.
Amanita muscaria is highly poisonous to humans and animals, with fatal poisonings being extremely rare but possible. The psychoactive compounds muscimol and ibotenic acid are responsible for its toxic effects. Animal models have demonstrated clinical effects similar to human exposure. Ingestion of a single A. pantherina mushroom, for example, may be fatal to a small puppy. The toxicity of Amanita muscaria can cause symptoms such as malaise, nausea, and altered consciousness, and in severe cases, it may lead to a coma or even death.
Intoxication from Amanita muscaria occurs rapidly, usually within 30 minutes of ingestion, and reaches its peak concentration after about 2-3 hours. While the mushroom is not typically hepatotoxic, individual reactions can vary significantly. The poisoning can cause biochemical changes such as decreased acetylcholine esterase activity, liver glycogen, and blood urea nitrogen, along with increased blood glucose levels. However, these changes are usually reversible, and vital organs like the liver and kidneys are generally not affected.
The rapid and correct identification of Amanita muscaria is crucial for optimal risk assessment and treatment. Its distinctive appearance makes accidental poisoning uncommon. However, it can sometimes be mistaken for edible mushroom species, leading to unintentional intoxication. Proper diagnosis and prompt medical intervention are essential for managing Amanita muscaria poisoning, as evidenced by a patient who fully recovered and was discharged from the hospital within four days after consuming the mushroom.
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Amanita muscaria's insecticidal properties
Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly amanita, is a large white-gilled, white-spotted mushroom featuring a bright red cap with distinctive white warts. It is one of the most recognisable fungi in the world and is native to the Northern Hemisphere's temperate and boreal forests. Its name is derived from its traditional use as an insecticide, specifically to kill flies.
Centuries ago, Amanita muscaria was used as a fly killer in Europe. The mushrooms were left in an open dish, attracting flies that would settle on them and subsequently be stunned. This practice has been recorded in Germanic and Slavic-speaking parts of Europe, as well as in France, Romania, and Sweden. Albertus Magnus, a 13th-century scholar, first recorded the practice in his work 'De vegetabilibus', commenting, "vocatur fungus muscarum, eo quod in lacte pulverizatus interficit muscas" ("it is called the fly mushroom because it is powdered in milk to kill flies").
The French mycologist Pierre Bulliard attempted to replicate its fly-killing properties in 1784 but was unsuccessful. He proposed renaming the mushroom Agaricus pseudo-aurantiacus. One compound isolated from the fungus, 1,3-diolein (1,3-di(cis-9-octadecenoyl)glycerol), attracts insects. It has been suggested that flies seek out the mushroom for its intoxicating properties.
While Amanita muscaria has been traditionally believed to be both attractive to and harmful to common houseflies, its insecticidal properties have been disproven. Ingestion of the mushroom can cause poisoning in both humans and animals due to psychoactive compounds like muscimol and ibotenic acid. However, fatal poisonings are extremely rare.
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Amanita phalloides, the deadliest mushroom
Amanita phalloides, commonly known as the death cap mushroom, is the deadliest mushroom in the world. It is responsible for the majority of mushroom poisonings worldwide, with 90% of mushroom-related fatalities attributed to it. Native to Europe, it has since spread to other parts of the world, including North America, where it was introduced via imported trees, and British Columbia. The death cap has also been introduced to new regions through the cultivation of non-native oak, chestnut, and pine species.
The death cap is a deadly poisonous basidiomycete fungus in the genus Amanita. It forms ectomycorrhizas with various broadleaved trees. The large fruiting bodies of the death cap appear in summer and autumn, and the caps are generally greenish, but the colour is variable, ranging from greenish-yellow to brown, tan, or rarely, white. The caps may also take on a metallic sheen as the mushroom ages or dries. The flesh inside is white and does not change colour when sliced. The death cap resembles several edible mushroom species, including Caesar's mushroom and the straw mushroom, which increases the risk of accidental poisoning.
The principal toxic constituent of Amanita phalloides is α-amanitin, a bicyclic octapeptide that is one of the amatoxins—a group of at least eight compounds with a similar structure of eight amino-acid rings. Amatoxins irreversibly bind to RNA polymerase II, preventing protein synthesis and causing cell death. The major toxic mechanism of amatoxins involves inhibiting RNA polymerase II, a vital enzyme in the synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA), microRNA, and small nuclear RNA (snRNA). Without mRNA, essential protein synthesis and cell metabolism are halted, leading to cell death. The liver is the principal organ affected by amatoxin poisoning, as it is the first organ encountered after absorption in the gastrointestinal tract. However, other organs, especially the kidneys, are also susceptible.
Management of Amanita phalloides poisoning involves providing supportive care, promoting renal elimination of amatoxins, interrupting enterohepatic recirculation of amatoxins, and administering proposed antidotes. While no established antidote has been identified, N-acetylcysteine and silibinin have shown some benefit in retrospective survival analyses.
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Accidental Amanita poisoning in animals
Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly amanita, is a large white-gilled, white-spotted mushroom featuring a bright red cap covered with distinctive white warts. It is one of the most recognisable fungi in the world. It is native to the forests of the Northern Hemisphere and has spread to the Southern Hemisphere. It is a highly poisonous mushroom, with the primary effects usually involving the central nervous system. In severe poisoning, symptoms may manifest as a coma and, in rare cases, death.
Unintentional poisoning by Amanita muscaria is rare due to its distinctive appearance and known toxic effects. However, it can be mistaken for edible species, especially at the immature button stage. Accidental poisoning can occur when people forage for mushrooms and are unable to distinguish between safe and unsafe mushroom species. Poisoning can also occur when people seek psychotropic mushrooms for their hallucinogenic effects but mistakenly ingest Amanita muscaria.
Animal models have demonstrated clinical effects similar to human exposure to Amanita muscaria. Ingestion of a single Amanita pantherina mushroom, a close relative of Amanita muscaria, may be fatal to small puppies. The poison advice centre can provide guidance on managing poisoned animals.
Amanita phalloides, commonly known as the death cap, is another species in the Amanita genus responsible for 90% of mushroom-related fatalities. It is the deadliest mushroom worldwide and has been involved in the majority of human deaths from mushroom poisoning. Amatoxin-containing mushrooms, including Amanita phalloides, are a rare but significant cause of acute liver failure in both humans and animals.
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Treatment of Amanita poisoning in animals
Amanita mushroom poisoning is a serious condition that can be fatal, especially in dogs. The treatment for Amanita poisoning in animals is primarily supportive care, as there is no specific antidote. Here are some key steps in the treatment process:
Early Identification and Decontamination
Early identification of Amanita mushroom ingestion is crucial. If the animal presents within two to four hours of ingestion, decontamination with oral activated charcoal can be performed to help absorb any remaining toxins in the stomach. Inducing vomiting may also be considered if the animal is stable and early in the course of ingestion.
Fluid and Electrolyte Management
It is important to address fluid loss and electrolyte imbalances. Two large-bore IVs should be established to administer fluids and correct electrolyte deficiencies. Normalizing glucose levels is also essential.
Liver Support
Amanita poisoning can lead to severe liver damage, so early consideration of liver support measures is crucial. N-acetyl-cysteine, a potent antioxidant, can be administered intravenously to help protect the liver and provide glutathione, which is crucial for liver function. High-dose penicillin may also be used to compete with the liver's uptake of amatoxins, potentially reducing their toxic effects. Silymarin, available as an intravenous formulation in Europe and as an over-the-counter raw milk thistle extract in North America, has been used in many cases to support liver function.
Intensive Care and Monitoring
Amanita poisoning can lead to rapid progression to hepatic encephalopathy, hepatorenal syndrome, or coagulopathy, which may require intensive care unit admission and continuous monitoring. In severe cases of liver failure, a liver transplant may be necessary.
Dialysis
When renal failure occurs due to Amanita poisoning, dialysis should be initiated. However, it is important to note that dialysis does not effectively remove amatoxins from the blood, so its benefit is limited in the context of Amanita poisoning.
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Frequently asked questions
Yes, Amanita mushroom is toxic to animals. Ingestion of a single A. pantherina mushroom can be fatal to a small puppy.
The symptoms of Amanita mushroom poisoning in animals can include malaise, nausea, and altered consciousness. In severe cases, poisoning may lead to a coma or even death.
If your pet consumes an Amanita mushroom, you should immediately contact a poison control center or your veterinarian for advice. Rapid identification of the mushroom is crucial for optimal risk assessment and treatment.
