The Evolution Of Psychedelic Mushrooms: Nature's Magic

Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are a type of hallucinogenic mushroom that contains the prodrug psilocybin, which turns into the psychedelic psilocin upon ingestion. The effects of psilocybin mushrooms are subjective and can vary among users, but often include hallucinations, hilarity, lack of concentration, and muscular relaxation. Psilocybin mushrooms have been used in Indigenous American cultures in religious, divinatory, or spiritual contexts, and are also used as recreational drugs. While the evolution of psychedelic compounds in nature is not fully understood, researchers are currently studying why fungi evolve psychedelic properties and how these compounds may have novel applications in human health.

The chemical composition of psilocybin mushrooms

Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are a polyphyletic informal group of fungi that contain the prodrug psilocybin, which turns into the psychedelic psilocin upon ingestion. The effects of psilocybin mushrooms come from psilocybin and psilocin. When psilocybin is ingested, it is broken down by the liver in a process called dephosphorylation, resulting in the compound psilocin, which is responsible for the psychedelic effects.

Psilocybin mushrooms contain a cocktail of compounds, some of which cause psychoactive effects in humans. Some of the known compounds in magic mushrooms are psilocybin, psilocin, norpsilocin, baeocystin, norbaeocystin, and aeruginascin. The most potent species are members of the genus Psilocybe, such as P. azurescens, P. semilanceata, and P. cyanescens. However, psilocybin has also been isolated from about a dozen other genera, including Panaeolus (including Copelandia), Inocybe, Pluteus, Gymnopilus, and Pholiotina.

The concentration of psilocybin in psilocybin mushrooms also depends on factors such as the age and size of the mushrooms and the part of the fruiting body. For instance, the caps of Panaeolus subalteatus mushrooms contain the highest amount of psilocybin compared to the rest of the fruiting body. Furthermore, mature mycelia contain some psilocybin, while young mycelia lack appreciable amounts.

Psilocybin mushrooms have been used in Mexican and Central American cultures for religious, divinatory, or spiritual purposes. They may also be depicted in Stone Age rock art in Africa and Europe and are more certainly represented in pre-Columbian sculptures and glyphs throughout the Americas.

The evolution of psilocybin mushrooms

Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are a polyphyletic informal group of fungi that contain the prodrug psilocybin, which turns into the psychedelic psilocin upon ingestion. The effects of psilocybin mushrooms come from the combination of psilocybin and psilocin.

Psilocybin mushrooms have been used in Mexican, Central American, and Indigenous American cultures in religious, divinatory, or spiritual contexts. Rock art from c. 9000–7000 BCE from Tassili, Algeria, is believed to depict psychedelic mushrooms and the transformation of the user under their influence. Prehistoric rock art near Villar del Humo in Spain suggests that Psilocybe hispanica was used in religious rituals 6,000 years ago. In the 1960s, public figures such as Timothy Leary advocated for the use of LSD by the general public, bringing psychedelic compounds into the public eye.

Today, psilocybin mushrooms are used as recreational drugs and can be purchased in some jurisdictions. They can be consumed in whole form, as dried or fresh mushrooms, or turned into extracts or food products such as mushroom edibles or mushroom tea. The effects of psilocybin mushrooms include hallucinations, an inability to discern fantasy from reality, panic reactions, psychosis, hilarity, lack of concentration, muscular relaxation, and dilated pupils.

While the evolution of psilocybin mushrooms is not fully understood, researchers at the University of Plymouth are currently examining why fungi evolve psychedelic properties. They are using next-generation DNA sequencing to test whether a diverse animal community feeds on psychedelic fungi and investigating whether the fungi undergo genetic changes during attack and development. By creating mutant fungi that cannot synthesize psilocybin, researchers hope to better understand the role of various fungal compounds.

The effects of psilocybin mushrooms

Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are a type of hallucinogenic mushroom. They contain the prodrug psilocybin, which turns into the psychedelic psilocin upon ingestion. The effects of psilocybin mushrooms are subjective and can vary considerably among individual users. However, some common effects include:

Psychological effects

Psilocybin mushrooms can induce hallucinations and an inability to discern fantasy from reality. They can also cause panic reactions and psychosis, especially if a large dose is ingested. The experience, or "trip," is strongly dependent on set and setting. The "set" refers to the user's state of mind, previous encounters with psychedelic drugs, and expectations. The "setting" refers to the environment in which the drug is taken, including factors such as the people present, the location, and the type of music and lighting. A negative environment or anxious state of mind can contribute to a "bad trip," while a comfortable, familiar, and calm environment can lead to a pleasant experience.

Physical effects

Physical effects of psilocybin mushrooms may include nausea, vomiting, euphoria, muscle weakness or relaxation, drowsiness, and lack of coordination.

Duration of effects

The psychedelic effects of psilocybin mushrooms typically appear around 20 minutes to an hour after ingestion and can last up to 6 hours.

Tolerance and dependence

Psilocybin mushrooms create short-term increases in tolerance, making it difficult to misuse them as the effects become weaker with frequent use within a short period. They have not been known to cause physical or psychological dependence (addiction).

Mystical experiences

Psychedelic drugs like psilocybin mushrooms can induce states of consciousness that have personal meaning and spiritual significance, often referred to as mystical experiences. These experiences can enhance self-awareness and a sense of connectedness with nature.

Flashbacks

People who regularly use psilocybin mushrooms may experience flashbacks involving previous mushroom trips. These flashbacks can occur weeks, months, or even years after the last drug use and can be triggered by stress, tiredness, or exercise.

Medical usage

Group therapies using psilocybin mushrooms are becoming more common in clinical practice, especially in Western countries. Psilocybin mushrooms have been traditionally used in Indigenous American, Mexican, and Central American cultures for religious, divinatory, or spiritual purposes.

The legality of psilocybin mushrooms

While the UN convention requires its members to prohibit psilocybin, the mushrooms containing the drug were not specifically included in the convention due to pressure from the Mexican government. Most national drug laws have been amended to reflect the terms of the convention. For example, the possession and use of psilocybin are prohibited under almost all circumstances in the US, UK, Canada, Australia, and Japan, and often carry severe legal penalties.

However, there has been ambiguity and selective enforcement regarding the legal status of psilocybin mushrooms in many national, state, and provincial drug laws. In the US, most state courts have considered the mushroom a "container" of illicit drugs, and therefore illegal. However, a loophole exists as the spores of psilocybin mushrooms do not contain psilocybin or psilocin and are legal to possess in many areas, leading to an active underground economy. Some US states, like New Mexico, have ruled that growing psilocybin mushrooms does not qualify as "manufacturing" a controlled substance.

In recent years, there has been a growing movement to decriminalise psilocybin, with advocates drawing parallels to the rapid legalisation of cannabis in the US. In May 2019, Denver, Colorado, became the first US city to decriminalise psilocybin mushrooms, followed by Oakland and Santa Cruz, California. In November 2020, Oregon became the first US state to decriminalise psilocybin and legalise its supervised non-medical use. Other US cities, such as Somerville and Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Washtenaw County, Michigan, have also joined the decriminalisation movement. In October 2023, an initiative was approved in Massachusetts to pursue the legalisation of psychedelics and home cultivation of entheogenic plants and fungi for the 2024 elections.

The history of psilocybin mushrooms

Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are hallucinogenic fungi that contain the prodrug psilocybin, which turns into the psychedelic psilocin upon ingestion. The effects of psilocybin mushrooms include hallucinations, an inability to discern fantasy from reality, panic reactions, psychosis, hilarity, lack of concentration, muscular relaxation, euphoria, muscle weakness, drowsiness, and lack of coordination.

Psilocybin mushrooms have a long history of use in various cultures and societies. They may be depicted in Stone Age rock art in Africa and Europe, but their use is more certainly represented in pre-Columbian sculptures and glyphs throughout the Americas. For example, rock art from c. 9000–7000 BCE from Tassili, Algeria, is believed to depict psychedelic mushrooms and the transformation of the user under their influence. Similarly, prehistoric rock art near Villar del Humo in Spain suggests that Psilocybe hispanica was used in religious rituals 6,000 years ago.

In the 20th century, psilocybin mushrooms gained widespread public attention, particularly in the 1960s. During this time, researchers such as Walter Pahnke and colleagues began to systematically evaluate the mystical experiences induced by psychedelic drugs. Terence McKenna documented the worldwide practices of psilocybin mushroom usage, suggesting that mushrooms enhanced self-awareness and a sense of contact with a "Transcendent Other," reflecting a deeper understanding of our connectedness with nature.

In addition to their recreational use, psilocybin mushrooms have been and continue to be used in Indigenous American, Mexican, and Central American cultures in religious, divinatory, or spiritual contexts. Reflecting the meaning of the word entheogen ("the god within"), these mushrooms are revered as powerful spiritual sacraments that provide access to sacred worlds. They are typically used in small group community settings, enhancing group cohesion and reaffirming traditional values.

Today, psilocybin mushrooms are still used in group therapies in Western clinical practice, with the potential for further integration provided that evidence of their safety and efficacy remains indicative.

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