Emily Johnson
Mushrooms are the fruiting bodies of a group of higher fungi that have evolved alongside plants for millions of years. While some mushrooms are popular worldwide for their nutritional and therapeutic properties, others are toxic and can cause poisoning. This toxicity is thought to be a defence mechanism to prevent the consumption of forest mushrooms by predators. There are about 6000 ingestions of toxic mushrooms annually in the United States, with over half of the exposures in children under six. The symptoms of mushroom poisoning vary from gastrointestinal discomfort to organ failure and death. The most common consequence of mushroom poisoning is gastrointestinal upset, with symptoms including nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramping, and diarrhoea. The severity of mushroom poisoning depends on the geographic location where the mushroom is grown, growth conditions, the amount of toxin delivered, and the genetic characteristics of the mushroom.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Toxin Type | Amatoxins, Gyromitrins, Orellanine, Muscarine, Psilocybin, Muscimol, Ibotenic Acid, Coprine, Cyclopeptides, Phallotoxins, Virotoxins, Illudins, Orellanus, Monomethylhydrazine, Norleucine |
| Toxin Effects | Gastrointestinal upset, organ failure, death, hallucinations, kidney damage, liver damage, neurologic sequelae, dehydration, renal failure, muscle injury, convulsions, illusions, drunk-like symptoms, headache, nausea, abdominal pain, diarrhoea, fatigue, blurred vision, palpitations, respiratory failure, tachycardia, hypotension, flushing, dizziness, vertigo, tremors, nystagmus, seizures, convulsions, liver failure, loss of strength and appetite, yellow skin, tea-coloured urine |
| Toxin Latency | 0.5-12 hours, 24 hours, 3-6 days, 3-20 days, 6-48 hours |
| Toxin Source | Amanita phalloides, Amanita exitialis, Amanita fuliginea, Amanita farinosa, Omphalotus, Chlorophyllum molybdites, Psilocybe, Conocybe, Gymnopilus, Panaeolus, Coprinus atramentarius, Galerina, Lepiota, Amanita smithiana, Cortinarius, Jack-o-Lantern mushrooms, Death Cap, Funeral Bell, Deadly Dapperling |
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What You'll Learn
- Amatoxins: toxins that cause liver damage and failure, and are present in the Death Cap mushroom
- Orellanine: a toxin that causes kidney failure, with no symptoms for 3-20 days after ingestion
- Muscarine: a toxin that affects the autonomic nervous system, found in jack o' lantern mushrooms
- Hallucinogens: ibotenic acid and muscimol are found in Amanita pantherina and Amanita muscaria mushrooms
- Gyromitrin: an unstable toxin that causes diarrhoea, vomiting, and fatigue, among other symptoms
Amatoxins: toxins that cause liver damage and failure, and are present in the Death Cap mushroom
Amatoxins are a family of cyclic octapeptides and are among the most common toxins found in mushrooms. They are potent toxins that can remain latent in the human body for 6 to 48 hours (with an average of 6 to 15 hours) after consumption before manifesting any poisoning symptoms. This latency period enables the ingested toxins to circulate and affect different organs, causing a delay in seeking medical attention.
Amatoxins are found in some mushrooms in the genus Amanita, as well as in certain species of Galerina and Lepiota. The toxins interfere with protein synthesis and cause liver failure by inhibiting RNA polymerase II, which is essential for the synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA). Without mRNA, cell metabolism stops, leading to cell death. Amatoxins can also damage the heart, and their impact on these vital organs can be fatal.
The symptoms of Amatoxin poisoning typically occur in distinct phases. The initial gastrointestinal phase involves severe symptoms such as vomiting, abdominal pain, and watery diarrhoea. This is followed by a transient recovery phase where GI symptoms resolve, but ongoing liver damage continues. This second stage can last for 2 to 3 days and is characterised by rising liver function markers, indicating the progression of liver injury.
The third stage of Amatoxin poisoning involves the compromise of both liver and renal function, leading to hepato-renal syndrome and potential rapid deterioration. Death can occur within 3 to 7 days if liver transplantation cannot be arranged. Ninety-five percent of deaths from mushroom ingestion worldwide are attributed to amatoxin-containing mushrooms, with Amanita phalloides, commonly known as the Death Cap, being the species associated with the most fatalities.
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Orellanine: a toxin that causes kidney failure, with no symptoms for 3-20 days after ingestion
Orellanine is a toxin found in certain types of mushrooms, notably those of the genus Cortinarius. It is one of the toxins most commonly implicated in fatal mushroom poisonings worldwide. After ingestion, orellanine typically exhibits no symptoms for 3–20 days. However, around day 11, individuals may experience early symptoms, as orellanine-containing mushrooms often contain other toxins as well.
The early symptoms of orellanine poisoning include pain in the area of the kidneys, thirst, vomiting, headache, and fatigue. These symptoms are indicative of kidney damage, which is a severe and potentially life-threatening complication. Orellanine is a nephrotoxin, meaning it specifically targets the kidneys.
The delay in the onset of symptoms following ingestion of orellanine-containing mushrooms can be attributed to the toxin's ability to circulate in the body before exerting its toxic effects. This latent period can lead to a delay in seeking medical attention, which may contribute to the severity of the poisoning.
To prevent orellanine poisoning, it is crucial to correctly identify mushrooms before consumption. Amateur mushroom foragers should familiarize themselves with both edible and toxic mushroom species, as misidentification is a common cause of mushroom poisoning. Additionally, some edible mushrooms may contain toxic compounds, so it is important to be aware of the potential risks associated with consuming wild mushrooms.
Overall, orellanine is a dangerous toxin that can cause kidney failure and potentially lead to death. The absence of symptoms for 3-20 days after ingestion makes it challenging to detect and treat orellanine poisoning promptly, emphasizing the importance of accurate mushroom identification and awareness of toxic species.
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Muscarine: a toxin that affects the autonomic nervous system, found in jack o' lantern mushrooms
Mushrooms are the fruiting bodies of a group of higher fungi that have evolved alongside plants over millions of years. They are widely distributed throughout the world, with thousands of species. However, only about 100 species are toxic to humans, and only 15-20 of those are potentially lethal when ingested.
One such toxic species is the jack o' lantern mushroom, which contains the toxin muscarine. Muscarine affects the receptors in the smooth muscles and sweat glands of the autonomic nervous system. It stimulates the muscarinic receptors of nerves and muscles, causing symptoms such as sweating, salivation, tears, blurred vision, palpitations, and, in high doses, respiratory failure.
Jack o' lantern mushrooms are sometimes mistaken for chanterelles due to their similar appearance. They are both bright orange and fruit at the same time of year, although jack o' lanterns grow on wood and have true gills, whereas chanterelles have veins.
Mushroom poisoning from jack o' lanterns and other toxic species can occur due to misidentification or intentional ingestion. Symptoms can vary from mild gastrointestinal discomfort to organ failure and death. In the case of muscarine poisoning, symptoms typically appear within the first 6 hours of ingestion and can include gastrointestinal, allergic, and neurological syndromes.
To prevent mushroom poisoning, foragers must familiarize themselves with both edible and toxic mushroom species in their local area. It is important to note that boiling, cooking, freezing, or processing may not alter the toxicity of some mushrooms. Therefore, the only way to completely avoid mushroom poisoning is to refrain from consuming wild mushrooms.
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Hallucinogens: ibotenic acid and muscimol are found in Amanita pantherina and Amanita muscaria mushrooms
Mushrooms are toxic when ingested due to the presence of secondary metabolites, which are the mushroom toxins. Poisonous mushrooms contain a variety of toxins that differ in toxicity levels. Amatoxins, for example, are thermostable toxins that cannot be eliminated by cooking the mushrooms. Orellanine is another toxin that causes kidney failure, while phallotoxins cause gastrointestinal upset. Poisoning symptoms can vary from slight gastrointestinal discomfort to death in about 10 days.
Amanita muscaria, also known as "fly agaric", is a psychoactive mushroom species that contains muscimol, ibotenic acid, and muscarine as its main active compounds. It is considered a "deliriant" rather than a "psychedelic" because it does not act on the same receptors as psilocybin or psilocin. Instead, it acts primarily on receptors that can cause an ethereal, dreamlike, and sedative state. It has been used medicinally for hundreds of years among tribal groups in Scandinavia, Eastern Europe, and Russia for its analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anxiolytic, and stimulant properties.
Recent research supports these traditional uses, demonstrating that muscimol in Amanita muscaria could have several medicinal benefits, including anxiolytic and anti-inflammatory properties. Amanita muscaria has also been the subject of recent books that describe the results of large-scale studies on the medicinal effects of microdosing with the mushroom. These books provide instructions for drying the mushrooms, making tinctures, teas, oils, and ointments, as well as effective microdose amounts.
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Gyromitrin: an unstable toxin that causes diarrhoea, vomiting, and fatigue, among other symptoms
Mushrooms are the fruiting bodies of a group of higher fungi that have evolved alongside plants for millions of years. They are widely distributed throughout the world, with thousands of species, but only around 100 are toxic.
One of the toxins found in mushrooms is gyromitrin, an unstable chemical that is present in some species of Gyromitra. It is an oxidizable volatile liquid at room temperature, and its vapours can be inhaled during cooking, causing toxicity. Symptoms of gyromitrin poisoning include diarrhoea, vomiting, fatigue, vertigo, ataxia, tremor, and nystagmus. Hydrazines, which have convulsant, cytotoxic, and irritating properties, can form in the stomach after ingestion, and gyromitrin can also lead to hepatic diseases and carcinogenesis. The antidote to gyromitrin poisoning is pyridoxine.
Mushroom poisoning often occurs due to the misidentification of toxic mushrooms as edible species, with their colour and morphology being similar. It is important for mushroom gatherers to familiarise themselves with both edible and toxic mushrooms to prevent poisoning.
The severity of mushroom poisoning can vary depending on factors such as the geographic location, growth conditions, the amount of toxin ingested, and the individual's susceptibility. While children are often exposed to nontoxic mushrooms, older persons are at greater risk of developing serious complications.
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Frequently asked questions
The symptoms of mushroom poisoning vary depending on the species and the amount ingested. Some common symptoms include nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramping, diarrhoea, dehydration, hallucinations, kidney damage, liver damage, and in some cases, death.
Some examples of toxic mushrooms include Death Cap (Amanita phalloides), Funeral Bell, Deadly Dapperling, and Jack-o-Lantern mushrooms.
Mushroom toxins can have various effects on the human body. For example, amatoxins cause liver toxicity, while orellanine causes kidney failure. Muscarine affects the receptors in smooth muscles and sweat glands in the nervous system.
Treatment for mushroom poisoning depends on the specific toxin ingested. In some cases, fluid replacement and symptomatic treatment may be sufficient. For severe cases, such as liver failure, a liver transplant may be required.
Mushroom poisoning can be prevented by avoiding the consumption of wild mushrooms and properly identifying edible mushrooms. It is important to familiarize oneself with both edible and toxic mushroom species, as well as their similar-looking counterparts.
