Magic Mushrooms: Psilocybin's Healing Powers

Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are a type of hallucinogenic mushroom that contains the prodrug psilocybin, which turns into the psychedelic psilocin upon ingestion. Psilocybin mushrooms are naturally occurring and are consumed for their hallucinogenic effects. They are psychedelic drugs, which means they can affect all the senses, altering a person's thinking, sense of time and emotions. Psilocybin mushrooms have been used in Mexican and Central American cultures in religious, divinatory, or spiritual contexts, with evidence of their use by indigenous people in Central America for healing and spiritual rituals as far back as 3000 BC. Today, psilocybin mushrooms are used as recreational drugs and are one of the most widely used psychedelic drugs globally.

History and legality

Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are hallucinogenic mushrooms that contain the prodrug psilocybin, which turns into the psychedelic psilocin upon ingestion. The use of psilocybin mushrooms dates back to prehistoric times, as suggested by cave paintings and rock art in modern-day Algeria, Europe, and Africa. In Mesoamerica, they were consumed in spiritual and divinatory ceremonies before Spanish chroniclers first documented their use in the 16th century. The South American Aztec Indians referred to them as "teonanacatl", meaning "god's flesh".

In 1957, a photo essay in a popular magazine described the use of these mushrooms to the Western world. The following year, Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann isolated psilocybin and psilocin from the mushroom Psilocybe mexicana. His employer, Sandoz, marketed and sold pure psilocybin to physicians and clinicians worldwide for use in psychedelic therapy.

The legality of psilocybin mushrooms varies worldwide. Psilocybin and psilocin are listed as Schedule I drugs under the United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, which requires its members to prohibit their use except for medical and scientific research under controlled conditions. However, due to pressure from the Mexican government, the mushrooms themselves were not specifically included in the convention. Many countries have since amended their national drug laws to reflect the terms of the convention, resulting in the regulation or prohibition of psilocybin mushrooms.

In the United States, psilocybin and psilocin were first subjected to federal regulation by the Drug Abuse Control Amendments of 1965. Most US state courts consider the mushroom a "container" of illicit drugs, and therefore illegal. However, there is ambiguity in the legal status of psilocybin mushrooms, with some jurisdictions specifically enacting laws to address their possession and sale. For example, Oregon has made magic mushrooms legal for mental health treatment in supervised settings, and there is a pending bill in California to legalise the possession and distribution of specified quantities of psilocybin. In contrast, states like California, Georgia, and Idaho have prohibited the sale and possession of psilocybin mushroom spores.

Similarly, in Australia, federal and state laws provide penalties for possessing, using, selling, or driving under the influence of magic mushrooms. In Germany, the possession and sale of psilocybin mushroom spores have been illegal since 1998.

Effects and risks

Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms, are a type of hallucinogenic mushroom. They are naturally occurring psychedelic drugs that alter a person's thinking, sense of time, emotions, and senses. The key ingredient in magic mushrooms is psilocybin, which is converted into psilocin in the body. Psilocin is the chemical with psychoactive properties.

Magic mushrooms can be eaten fresh, cooked, or brewed into a tea. The effects of magic mushrooms usually begin within 30 minutes when eaten, or within 5–10 minutes when taken as a soup or tea, and can last for approximately four to six hours. The effects of psilocybin mushrooms vary from person to person, and the strength of magic mushrooms can vary greatly. One mushroom may have different concentrations of the active ingredients compared to another. The effects of magic mushrooms include heightened emotions and senses, euphoria, hallucinations, and sensory distortion. People may feel happy and creative, and may laugh or giggle a lot.

There are risks associated with the use of magic mushrooms. The use of magic mushrooms can lead to short-term mental and physical effects, such as increased heart rate and blood pressure, anxiety, fear, nausea, and muscle twitches. Although rare, the use of magic mushrooms can also lead to life-threatening symptoms, especially if a large amount or a strong batch of mushrooms is consumed. This may include a bad trip, which may be frightening and include paranoia, loss of boundaries, and a distorted sense of self. In addition, there is a risk of accidental poisoning from consuming poisonous mushrooms. There is also a risk of developing hallucinogen-persisting perception disorder, which can cause flashbacks anywhere from weeks to years after using the hallucinogen.

There is little evidence that people can become physically or psychologically dependent on magic mushrooms. However, it is possible to become tolerant to the drug's effects with regular use. There are no approved therapeutic products containing psilocybin in Canada or elsewhere, meaning that the safety, efficacy, and quality of products containing psilocybin have not been assessed. However, there is increasing interest in the potential therapeutic uses of magic mushrooms and psilocybin, and ongoing research is looking at the potential of psilocybin to treat various mental health disorders.

Therapeutic uses

Psilocybin, the active ingredient in magic mushrooms, has a variety of therapeutic uses that are currently being studied. It is classified as a Schedule I substance, meaning that the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) believes it has a high potential for abuse and no legitimate medical purpose. However, this notion is being challenged by research that highlights the therapeutic potential of psilocybin.

Psilocybin has been used in spiritual rituals and traditional ceremonies by indigenous people in Central America for thousands of years. In modern times, it is being studied for its potential to treat mental illnesses and substance use disorders. The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) is supporting research into psilocybin as a potential treatment for substance use disorders and other mental illnesses.

One area of interest is psilocybin's potential to treat depression and anxiety, particularly in people with cancer. Research suggests that psilocybin may help regulate the brain's reward system, leading to a reduction in depressive symptoms. A 2024 review suggests that psilocybin may have both short-term and long-term antidepressant effects. The National Cancer Institute is funding a multi-site clinical trial to investigate the use of psilocybin in treating cancer-related mental health issues.

Psilocybin is also being studied for its potential in treating other psychiatric disorders such as obsessive-compulsive disorder, cluster headaches, and migraines. Additionally, psilocybin has been used to help people quit smoking and manage alcohol use disorder and other addictions.

While psilocybin shows promise in treating various conditions, it is important to note that it can also cause adverse effects. Psychological distress, anxiety, and hallucinations are some of the potential risks associated with psilocybin use. Therefore, clinical trials are necessary to advance research while protecting the health and safety of patients.

Evolution and distribution

Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are a polyphyletic informal group of fungi that contain the prodrug psilocybin, which turns into the psychedelic psilocin upon ingestion. They are hallucinogenic and produce effects similar to LSD. The most potent species are members of the genus Psilocybe, such as P. azurescens, P. semilanceata, and P. cyanescens. However, psilocybin has also been isolated from a dozen other genera, including Panaeolus (including Copelandia), Inocybe, Pluteus, Gymnopilus, and Pholiotina.

Psilocybin mushrooms occur on all continents, but the majority of species are found in subtropical humid forests. They generally grow in meadows and woods in the subtropics and tropics, usually in soils rich in humus and plant debris. They may be depicted in Stone Age rock art in Africa and Europe, but they are more certainly represented in pre-Columbian sculptures and glyphs throughout the Americas.

In a 2000 review of the worldwide distribution of psilocybin mushrooms, Gastón Guzmán and colleagues identified the following genera: Psilocybe (116 species), Gymnopilus (14), Panaeolus (13), Copelandia (12), Pluteus (6), Inocybe (6), Pholiotina (4), and Galerina (1). Guzmán increased his estimate of psilocybin-containing Psilocybe to 144 species in a 2005 review. Many of them are found in Mexico (53 species), with the remainder distributed throughout Canada and the US (22), Europe (16), Asia (15), Africa (4), and Australia and associated islands (19).

P. cubensis, the most common Psilocybe in tropical areas, grows naturally in tropical and subtropical conditions, often near cattle due to the ideal conditions they provide for fungal growth. P. semilanceata is considered the world's most widely distributed psilocybin mushroom, found in temperate parts of Europe, North America, Asia, South America, Australia, and New Zealand, but absent from Mexico. In 2024, two new Psilocybe species (Hymenogastraceae), P. ingeli and P. maluti, were described in southern Africa.

The historical and ecological context of molecular evolution events, including the clustering of genes, convergent pathway evolution, and horizontal gene transfer, suggest selective pressures that have led to the global distribution of psilocybin-producing fungi. Genome evolution provides clues about the function of psilocybin, which has unique chemical properties that influence its bioactivity. Psilocybin production appears interchangeable with other neuroactive metabolites, and its affinity for serotonin receptors potentially targets diverse animal taxa.

Consumption methods

Psilocybin mushrooms, often referred to as "shrooms", are hallucinogenic fungi that contain the psychoactive chemical psilocybin, which can induce euphoria, hallucinations, and laughter. The effects of psilocybin mushrooms can range from extremely positive to incredibly challenging, and it is important to be mindful of the potential risks and negative consequences associated with their consumption.

Dried Mushrooms: Psilocybin mushrooms are typically consumed in their dried form. Dried mushrooms are easy to measure and have a longer shelf life. They can be eaten directly, but some people may prefer to grind them into a powder first due to their strong flavour.

Capsules: To make capsules, the powdered mushrooms are placed into capsules, which can then be swallowed. This method avoids the strong taste of the mushrooms and provides a more precise dosage.

Tea: Mushrooms can be crushed and brewed into a tea, which may be more palatable for some. The onset time for this method is typically around 15 minutes, and the effects may be milder.

Edibles: Psilocybin mushrooms can also be incorporated into various edible recipes, such as blending them with cooked food items or fruit juice. However, cooking with mushrooms may affect their potency, and it can be challenging to control the dosage.

Rectal Administration: In ancient times, the Maya priests of the Actun Tunichil Muknal cave in Belize used deer bladders attached to hollowed-out bones to administer psilocybin rectally.

It is important to note that the consumption of psilocybin mushrooms should be approached with caution. It is recommended to conduct thorough research, understand the potential risks, and be mindful of your mental and emotional state before consuming these substances. Additionally, consuming psilocybin mushrooms with other substances, including certain medications, can lead to unpredictable results and adverse effects.

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