Laura Smith
Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are a type of hallucinogenic mushroom and a polyphyletic informal group of fungi that contain the prodrug psilocybin, which turns into the psychedelic psilocin upon ingestion. The effects of psilocybin mushrooms come from psilocybin and psilocin. When psilocybin is ingested, it is broken down by the liver in a process called dephosphorylation, which results in psilocin, responsible for the psychedelic effects. The use of psychedelic mushrooms dates back to 9000-7000 BCE, as evidenced by rock art discovered in Tassili, Algeria, which is believed to depict the transformation of an individual under the influence of psychedelic mushrooms.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Common names | Magic mushrooms, Shrooms, Entheogens |
| Scientific name | Psilocybin mushrooms |
| Active ingredient | Psilocybin, which turns into psilocin upon ingestion |
| Effects | Euphoria, Nausea, Hallucinations, Distorted sense of time, Spiritual experiences, Flashbacks, Panic attacks |
| Use | Recreational, Spiritual, Medicinal |
| History | Rock art suggests prehistoric use, Widespread use in the 1960s and 1970s, Outlawed in most countries |
| Legal status | Outlawed in most countries, including Australia and the United States |
| Preparation | Consumed fresh or dried, Turned into tea or food products, Rarely injected intravenously |
| Dosage | 5-40 mg orally, with 5-10 mg considered a low dose and 30-40 mg a high dose |
| Benefits | Potential treatment for PTSD, depression, and end-of-life care |
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What You'll Learn
Prehistoric use of psychedelic mushrooms
The use of psychedelic mushrooms has a long and ancient history, dating back thousands of years. Rock art from Tassili, Algeria, dating back to around 9000–7000 BCE, is believed to depict psychedelic mushrooms and the transformation of the user under their influence. Similarly, prehistoric rock art near Villar del Humo in Spain suggests that Psilocybe hispanica was used in religious rituals 6,000 years ago.
In South America, the use of hallucinogenic mushrooms in Mesoamerica has been documented through the discovery of so-called mushroom stones, which are small sculptures resembling mushrooms. These have been found at various sites in Guatemala, Mexico, Honduras, and El Salvador, dating from 500 BC to AD 900.
The use of psychoactive substances in prehistoric Eurasia has also been studied. For example, the consumption of the betel plant, which contains stimulant and euphoria-inducing properties, has been traced back to at least 2660 BC. In addition, prehistoric rock art in Africa and Europe may depict the use of hallucinogenic mushrooms, although the timeline is less clear.
In North America, the Amanita muscaria mushroom is believed to have been first used in America after humans crossed the Bering Strait during the Ice Age, around 16,500 years ago. This mushroom is still used by the indigenous Ojibwa community in the Great Lakes region between Canada and the United States.
The discovery of a shaman's bag in the Bolivian Andes, containing traces of psilocin, also sheds light on the ancient use of hallucinogenic drugs. This discovery provides a unique insight into the relationship between prehistoric civilizations and powerful hallucinogenic substances.
Overall, the use of psychedelic mushrooms has a rich and varied history, with evidence of their consumption by prehistoric societies across the globe.
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The chemical composition of psilocybin
Psilocybin, also known as 4-phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (4-PO-DMT), is a naturally occurring tryptamine alkaloid and investigational drug found in more than 200 species of mushrooms. It is a prodrug that, when ingested, is broken down by the liver in a process called dephosphorylation, resulting in the compound psilocin, which is responsible for the psychedelic effects.
Psilocybin is most commonly consumed in the form of psilocybin-containing mushrooms, such as Psilocybe cubensis, which can be eaten fresh or dried, or turned into extracts, herbal tea, or food products. The psilocybin present in certain species of mushrooms can also be intravenously injected, though this has resulted in serious medical complications in rare cases. The typical oral dose of psilocybin for psychedelic effects is 5 to 40 mg, with low doses being 5 to 10 mg, "good effect" doses being 20 mg, and high or ego-dissolution doses ranging from 30 to 40 mg.
The molecular structure of psilocybin mimics serotonin and binds to serotonin receptors, especially 5-HT2A, which is a receptor that many psychedelic drugs bind to. Psilocybin's glucuronidated metabolites include psilocin-O-glucuronide and 4-HIAA-O-glucuronide. Approximately 80% of psilocin in blood plasma is in conjugated form, and conjugated psilocin levels are about four times higher than levels of free psilocin.
Psilocybin was first synthesized in mushrooms in the genus Psilocybe, with four to five possible horizontal gene transfers to other mushrooms from 40 up to 9 million years ago. The synthesis of psilocybin was first reported by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann and his colleagues in 1963, though they had isolated the compound from P. mexicana in 1958. Since then, various chemists have improved the methods for laboratory synthesis and purification of psilocybin.
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How psilocybin affects the body
Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are hallucinogenic mushrooms that contain the prodrug psilocybin. This compound is biologically inactive but is quickly converted by the body into psilocin, which is responsible for the psychedelic effects. When ingested, psilocybin is broken down by the liver through a process called dephosphorylation.
The effects of psilocybin on the body can vary considerably among individual users. The psychedelic effects typically appear around 20 minutes after ingestion and can last up to 6 hours. The strength of the mushrooms depends on their freshness, the season, and where they grow. The world may appear distorted, with colours, sounds, objects, and time seeming very different. Some people experience mild hallucinations, while others may have adverse reactions such as nausea, panic attacks, vomiting, euphoria, muscle weakness, relaxation, drowsiness, and lack of coordination.
Psilocybin has been classified as a Schedule I drug in the United States, and possession of psilocybin-containing mushrooms has been outlawed in most countries. However, it has been used in Mexican and Central American cultures for religious, spiritual, and divinatory purposes. The potential therapeutic benefits of psilocybin are being explored, particularly for the treatment of mood and substance use disorders, PTSD, depression, and end-of-life care.
Psilocybin affects the brain by causing major changes in functional connectivity, or FC, which measures how activity in different regions of the brain is correlated. These changes are particularly prominent in areas involved in the default mode network, which is thought to govern people's sense of space, time, and self. A single high dose of psilocybin has been shown to alter emotions and brain function for up to one month after ingestion, with increased positive affect and reduced negative affect.
It is important to note that the biggest danger to your health when consuming psilocybin mushrooms is accidentally ingesting poisonous mushrooms, which can be fatal. Additionally, psilocybin can worsen mental health issues, and it is strongly advised against self-medicating without supervision by trained mental health experts.
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How to identify magic mushrooms
Magic mushrooms, or psilocybin mushrooms, are a type of hallucinogenic mushroom that contains the prodrug psilocybin, which induces psychedelic effects when ingested. The most potent species are members of the genus Psilocybe, such as Psilocybe cubensis, Psilocybe semilanceata, and Psilocybe cyanescens.
Identifying magic mushrooms requires proper knowledge and caution as they can closely resemble poisonous varieties. Here are some key features to look out for:
Cap Shape and Size
Magic mushroom caps are often shaped like bells or cones, with sizes ranging from approximately 1 to 10 cm in diameter. The cap colour can vary, with some species having caramel or golden-brown caps, while others like Psilocybe cyanescens are known for their wavy or rippled caps.
Gill Attachment and Colour
The gills of magic mushrooms are typically thin and delicate, packed tightly with spores, and located on the underside of the cap, radiating towards the stem. The gill colour can range from off-white to deep brown.
Stem Length and Texture
Magic mushroom stems can vary in length from 4 to 15 cm tall and are often hollow and white.
Blue Bruising
When damaged or handled, magic mushrooms may exhibit blue bruising due to oxidation. However, this is not a definitive characteristic as some poisonous mushrooms also display this trait.
Spore Prints
Spore prints can be a reliable identification method. Mature mushrooms with fully opened caps are placed gills-down on a surface, covered, and left for several hours. Magic mushrooms typically produce dark purple to almost black spore prints. If the spore print is any colour other than white, it may indicate the presence of toxic spores.
Habitat
Magic mushrooms tend to grow in moist climates with ample shade, such as grasslands, subtropical areas, or near decayed organic material like compost or dead trees. They may sometimes grow in circular patterns, known as "fairy rings" by foragers.
While these identification features provide guidance, it is crucial to exercise caution when foraging for magic mushrooms due to the potential health risks associated with misidentification. Always seek the opinion of a mycologist before consuming wild mushrooms.
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The legality of psychedelic mushrooms
The UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances requires its members to prohibit psilocybin and restrict the use of the drug to medical and scientific research under controlled conditions. Most national drug laws have been amended to reflect the terms of the convention. Examples include the UK Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, the US Psychotropic Substances Act of 1978, the Australian Poisons Standard (October 2015), and the Canadian Controlled Drugs and Substances Act of 1996.
The possession and use of psilocybin are prohibited under almost all circumstances and often carry severe legal penalties. However, there has been ambiguity about the legal status of psilocybin mushrooms, and a strong element of selective enforcement in some places. Most US state courts have considered the mushroom a "container" of illicit drugs, and therefore illegal. A loophole further complicates the legal situation—the spores of psilocybin mushrooms do not contain the drugs and are legal to possess in many areas.
In recent years, there has been a growing movement to decriminalize psilocybin mushrooms, with advocates citing the rapid legalization of cannabis and the potential beneficial use of psilocybin in treating treatment-resistant depression and nicotine dependence. In May 2019, Denver, Colorado, became the first city in the United States to decriminalize psilocybin mushrooms, with other cities and states following suit. In November 2020, Oregon became the first state to decriminalize and legalize psilocybin for supervised non-medical use. In August 2024, decriminalization efforts did not include synthetic psychedelics such as LSD and MDMA.
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Frequently asked questions
Psychedelic mushrooms, also known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are a type of hallucinogenic mushroom that contains the prodrug psilocybin, which turns into the psychedelic psilocin upon ingestion.
Psilocybin mimics serotonin and binds to serotonin receptors, especially 5-HT2A, which is a receptor that many psychedelic drugs bind to. When a chemical binds to these receptors, it can alter behaviour and mental state.
Rock art from c. 9000–7000 BCE from Tassili, Algeria, is believed to depict psychedelic mushrooms and their effects on users. In the 1500s, mushrooms were eaten in festivities during the reign of Aztec emperor Moctezuma II. In the 1950s, Wasson described his psychedelic experiences during these rituals in an article published in Life magazine. French mycologist Roger Heim later identified the mushrooms as Psilocybe species, and sent samples for analysis to Albert Hofmann, a chemist who had previously synthesized LSD. Hofmann and his team then isolated and identified the psychoactive alkaloids psilocybin and psilocin from Psilocybe mexicana.
The effects of psychedelic mushrooms are subjective and vary among individuals. They can include hallucinations, nausea, vomiting, euphoria, muscle weakness or relaxation, drowsiness, and lack of coordination. Psilocybin has low toxicity and a low risk of causing life-threatening events like breathing or heart problems. However, fatal events related to emotional distress and trip-induced psychosis can occur as a result of over-consumption.
