Sarah Brown
Psilocybin mushrooms, commonly known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are a group of hallucinogenic fungi that have been used for thousands of years. They were first discovered by indigenous cultures in North Africa and Spain as early as 9,000 B.C. and were later introduced to the Western world in the 16th century by Spanish missionaries. In the 1950s, they gained popularity in the United States through the work of Gordon Wasson, who, along with his wife, participated in a mushroom ceremony in Oaxaca, Mexico, and subsequently wrote about their experience. This sparked interest in the psychedelic effects of psilocybin mushrooms, leading to further research and their classification as a Schedule I substance in the 1970s. Despite their controversial history, psilocybin mushrooms have recently gained attention for their potential therapeutic benefits, with ongoing research exploring their use in treating mental health disorders.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Discovery | One of the earliest depictions of hallucinogenic mushroom use comes from a 4000 BCE cave painting in Spain. |
| Introduction to the U.S. | Gordon Wasson, a U.S. banker, and his wife travelled to Oaxaca, Mexico, and participated in a mushroom ceremony. |
| Popularisation | Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert, psychology professors at Harvard University, promoted the use of psilocybin mushrooms after trying them themselves in Mexico. |
| War on Drugs | In 1971, President Nixon declared the War on Drugs, classifying psilocybin mushrooms as a Schedule I substance and halting all research on the drug. |
| Resurgence | In the 2000s, researchers at Johns Hopkins received approval from the U.S. government to resume research on psilocybin mushrooms. |
| Medical Potential | Psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy has been indicated as a possible treatment for substance abuse, anxiety, depression, and other mental health conditions. |
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What You'll Learn
Ancient history
The use of psychedelic mushrooms dates back thousands of years. One of the earliest known records of hallucinogenic mushroom use is a 6,000-year-old cave painting in Spain, which illustrates what appear to be Psilocybe hispanica mushrooms, a species known for its hallucinogenic properties. Other ancient rock drawings found in the Saharan mountains also suggest that ancient peoples had knowledge of the psychoactive effects of psychedelic mushrooms.
The ancient Greeks and Romans are known to have held seasonal rites involving the ingestion of a psychoactive drink called kykeon, which contained LSD-like hallucinogens. However, the use of psychedelic mushrooms likely stretches back much further in human history.
In the Americas, the use of psychedelic mushrooms has been traced back to ancient civilisations such as the Aztecs and the Maya. The Aztecs referred to the mushrooms as "teonanacatl", meaning "god's flesh", and consumed them during religious and healing rituals. Spanish chroniclers and missionaries in the 16th century documented these practices, often with fascination and horror, and attempted to suppress them. Despite this, the use of psychedelic mushrooms in ceremonies persisted in secret, passed down through generations by indigenous shamans and healers.
In Asia, the ancient Chinese doctrine "Baopuzi", written by Daoist philosopher and alchemist Ge Hong (283 to 343 AD), describes many intoxicating mushrooms, including Psilocybe mushrooms, which were believed to be agents for achieving immortality.
Indigenous communities across the globe have long used psychedelic mushrooms in spiritual rituals, with archaeological evidence suggesting their use in religious and healing practices dating back thousands of years. These mushrooms were considered sacred and capable of connecting the physical world with the spiritual realm.
The Discovery of Psychedelic Mushrooms: A Historical Perspective
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Introduction to the West
The introduction of psychedelic mushrooms to the West is a story that spans centuries, from the first recorded encounters in the 1500s to their popularisation in the 1960s and their ongoing integration into Western medicine today.
Early Records
The first Western records of psychedelic mushrooms come from the 16th century, when Spanish missionaries in South America encountered the indigenous use of these mushrooms. The Aztecs referred to the mushrooms as "teonanacatl", meaning "god's flesh", and used them in religious and healing rituals. The Spanish missionaries attempted to destroy all evidence of this practice, but a Franciscan friar and historian, Bernardino de Sahagún, documented the use of "teonanacatl" in his extensive writings from the 1520s.
Rediscovery
Psychedelic mushrooms were "rediscovered" by the West in the 1950s, when amateur mycologist Gordon Wasson became the first modern Westerner to document an indigenous psychedelic mushroom ceremony in Mexico. Wasson later published his findings in a 1957 photo essay in Life magazine, titled "Seeking the Magic Mushroom". He described the psychedelic visions he experienced during these rituals, which sparked widespread interest in the Western world.
Popularisation
The popularisation of psychedelic mushrooms in the West can be attributed to several figures, including Timothy Leary, Terence McKenna, and Robert Anton Wilson. Timothy Leary, inspired by Wasson's article, travelled to Mexico to experience psilocybin mushrooms himself. Upon returning to Harvard in 1960, he and Richard Alpert started the Harvard Psilocybin Project, promoting the psychological and religious studies of psilocybin and other psychedelic drugs. By the early 1970s, the use of psilocybin mushrooms had exploded worldwide, with many species being described and collected from North America, Europe, and Asia.
Modern Day
Today, psychedelic mushrooms continue to play a role in Western society, both recreationally and medicinally. While they remain illegal in many Western countries, there is a growing interest in their potential therapeutic benefits. Psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy is being explored as a possible treatment for mental health issues such as anxiety, depression, and substance abuse. Clinical studies have indicated the potential medical value of psilocybin, and group therapies using psychedelic mushrooms are becoming more common in Western clinical practice.
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Medical applications
Although psychedelic mushrooms are mostly illegal in the US and are classified as a Schedule I drug with "no currently accepted medical use and a high potential for abuse", they have been used for thousands of years for medicinal purposes.
Substance Use Disorders
Psilocybin, the active ingredient in psychedelic mushrooms, has been found to be effective in treating substance use disorders, including tobacco use disorder. A study from Johns Hopkins University found that psilocybin therapy significantly improved abstinence from smoking over a 12-month follow-up period. The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) is funding a large, multi-site study to investigate the effectiveness of psilocybin versus a nicotine patch, in combination with therapy, to help people stop smoking. NIDA is also supporting research into psilocybin as a potential treatment for other substance use disorders, such as alcohol and cocaine addiction.
Mental Health
Psychedelic mushrooms have been found to have potential benefits for mental health. Research suggests that psilocybin can reduce anxiety and depression, including in people with cancer. The National Cancer Institute is funding a multi-site clinical trial to investigate the use of psilocybin to treat cancer-related mental health issues. The Heffter Research Institute, a non-profit research centre focused on the therapeutic uses of psychedelics, is also investigating the use of psilocybin in treating addiction and cancer-related psychiatric disorders.
Recidivism
In the 1960s, Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert conducted research with psilocybin on prisoners, testing its effects on recidivism. The experiment found that the recidivism rate decreased beyond their expectations, below 40%.
Other Potential Applications
Psychedelic mushrooms have been found to cause distorted sights and sounds, loss of sense of time and space, and intense emotions ranging from bliss to terror. They have been used for recreational purposes and in religious and healing rituals. Some physical side effects include increased heart rate, nausea, muscle weakness, drowsiness, and lack of coordination. However, psilocybin mushrooms have not been found to cause physical or psychological dependence.
While the use of psychedelic mushrooms has been discouraged and criminalized by many institutions, there is ongoing research into their potential medical applications.
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The War on Drugs
Prior to the War on Drugs, psilocybin mushrooms had gained popularity in the US and worldwide. Gordon Wasson, a banker, and his wife introduced the mushrooms to the US after experiencing a mushroom ceremony in Oaxaca, Mexico. They shared their experiences, despite promising to keep them private, and Wasson provided a sample to Swiss chemist Albert Hoffman, who isolated psilocybin and produced pills for research. Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert, psychology professors at Harvard University, became interested in psilocybin mushrooms after reading about Wasson's experiences. They travelled to Mexico to try the mushrooms themselves and later started the Harvard Psilocybin Project to promote psychological and religious studies of psilocybin and other psychedelic drugs.
The Harvard Psilocybin Project conducted experiments administering psilocybin to prisoners and graduate divinity students, which caused controversy and led to Leary and Alpert's dismissal from Harvard in 1963. Despite this, they continued to promote the use of psychedelic substances to the hippie counterculture. By the early 1970s, many psilocybin mushroom species were identified in North America, Europe, and Asia, and their popularity grew.
In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in the therapeutic potential of psychedelic substances, including psilocybin mushrooms. Researchers are now exploring the use of psilocybin-assisted therapy for various mental health conditions, such as substance abuse, anxiety, and depression. The complex history of psilocybin mushrooms in the United States, with its initial popularity, subsequent backlash, and now potential for therapeutic use, highlights the evolving understanding and perception of these substances.
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Current research
Psychedelic mushrooms, also known as psilocybin mushrooms, are currently being researched for their potential therapeutic benefits. The molecular structure of psilocybin, a naturally occurring psychedelic compound found in these mushrooms, allows it to penetrate the central nervous system. Researchers are exploring its effects on the brain and its potential therapeutic applications for mental illnesses. The Johns Hopkins Center for Psychedelic and Consciousness Research is at the forefront of this exploration, with \$55 million in funding to investigate the use of psilocybin in treating psychiatric and behavioral disorders, as well as its potential to support human thriving.
Roland Griffiths, Ph.D., highlighted the therapeutic and consciousness-altering potential of psilocybin in a TEDMED talk in 2015. Research has demonstrated the safety of psilocybin when used in regulated spaces with medical supervision. It has been found to reduce anxiety in cancer patients and aid in smoking cessation. Additionally, a small study at Johns Hopkins showed that two doses of psilocybin, combined with psychotherapy, produced rapid and significant reductions in depressive symptoms, with half of the participants achieving remission during the four-week follow-up.
The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) is also investigating psilocybin as a potential treatment for substance use disorders and other mental illnesses. An online survey of over 300 people with Alcohol Use Disorder found that many reported reducing or abstaining from alcohol use after taking psilocybin or other psychedelic substances. This adds to the growing evidence supporting further exploration of psychedelic-assisted treatments for substance abuse.
The therapeutic potential of psilocybin has attracted significant investment, with over \$320 million invested in psychedelic neuropharmaceutical development in the second quarter of 2019 alone. The global psychedelic therapeutic market is predicted to reach a valuation of \$6.8 billion by 2027. The recent approval of SPRAVATO®, a ketamine-based treatment for treatment-resistant depression, and the granting of "breakthrough therapy" status to psilocybin treatments for Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) are expected to further spur psychedelic research.
Jamaica has a burgeoning medical psychedelic tourism industry, with retreats like Atman and Mycomeditations offering psychedelic experiences. The country's flexible regulatory framework for psychedelics has attracted overseas companies interested in production and distribution. However, to convince the WHO to reschedule psilocybin out of Schedule 1, Jamaica's psychedelic mushroom industry must prioritize scientific research and evidence-based data.
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Frequently asked questions
Psychedelic mushrooms, also known as magic mushrooms or shrooms, are a type of hallucinogenic mushroom that contains the prodrug psilocybin, which turns into the psychedelic psilocin upon ingestion.
Psychedelic mushrooms have been used by indigenous cultures for generations in ritual ceremonies. They were first introduced to the United States by a banker, Gordon Wasson, and his wife, who travelled to Oaxaca, Mexico, and participated in a mushroom ceremony.
After his experience with psychedelic mushrooms in Mexico, Gordon Wasson wrote about his experience in a popular magazine, introducing these mushrooms to the Western world. He also brought back samples of the mushrooms and gave them to Swiss chemist Albert Hoffman, who isolated the psilocybin and began producing pills for research purposes.
The effects of psychedelic mushrooms vary from person to person and can range from spiritual awakening to frightening hallucinations. Physical effects may include nausea, vomiting, euphoria, muscle weakness or relaxation, drowsiness, and lack of coordination.
